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THE UNIVERSITY 
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ARCHITECT URAS 
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“ARCHITECTONICS 


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By Rudolph Redtenbacher _ a ay 
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With 895 Engravings on Wood 
Berlin . 


1883 / ja Pe Ga 


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Translated by Ne Clifford Ricker. De aren. 


HM a Ns Avchitecearm 


University of Illinois ai, 


‘Urbana. Ill. 


1884 


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oA DATERY 
. bans emsa odd Iga, béonenion “siton 10: t6 deal, sas Wt Tit if 
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bf bone [avestbey to ybots dycot0dt a no beesd ek soide f 
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Pat {selpotitseq bas L[etensg ni ysb tacsetg sdd to ameliorg 
(eottents®) eotaotoe? to esfytontrg edt atiw Ne¢tw sonebse 
 daew feutoslletnt eat to actisensiaos « yitlsest ar er 
¢ Ut tact oF «Bningiaad [eretoetidors (is af snoh 9d sean 
Bm S10 eASvViz 918 maldorg sdf to noitelos & 19T Bnortrbnos 
. fitom to mot antbnoyeetioo sat ont? yi@rtep bus yisess 
Sonsiawucito ao abasgeh svitcm etd? yd Seauese yileatt mi0t 
i 36 2k dood ed? .soedidosk edd Yo Atow offeisas ent ef bos 
ae bas m10t feistostidors to [eanem gs Sak) suse 
wt Pyibetesanos of Jostidsae aft 10% sfdiacoy sham ar FI 
P.yltositb esidoig-etd doinw of ,¢s8bi Tnasioger si6M sad 
fe to Pasasee1d oftetirs sot oF [attnsee9 yaninton tend o8 
iS aviten Jadw. sbiseb of ylno eed 3d pbsitiro od yam ngie 
| i jntbeal edt ylaren nada ,mefdotq sit oF ebnoqest109 
mie i uae a |  gnevrg ef mtot eth 
‘sosiqetott? ett soidouttenos of Sitees I. sornosool um ar ek 
Mearisentane bas [eistostiaowA to dnomtsers oivertwe sna at 
M | wltni od yem atoll oftaigis odd es wet 08 .esteiSoxds 
Ainq evitoottancc no tf eged of Tdgnoe Svsd | no Ltonttewoo 
Enosos] to gelgionizg sdf yd Hshio3 er odw ,oaC .eateio 
fteu ardt to divest oat .msldoig gneve svloa yltoettoo 
elqionitg At wrabom ,elyde somsekisnea 8 ek etebesexg 
cea teneh usilatl sdt bos” ‘selyta tastons odd ot aelince aeel 
“eeisd noces? S15H .stntosiinotsa [sevesibell of aa [len ge 
ertes. reddiestest [enottibey to feorrosesth yna to seats 
261 yests *8BRD sefpotdus7 wae mi toga ei tadw eshioot 
Ral satgobne fo tdgit etk ao etetne yons? bas cir entat 
i © met. rsqo1g eth dtiw bavot ybasale 
1 oad ‘to eelua sit ‘be tieaym betoiatee: sved I yaseeo ynen cl 
6 SA eonseatenss azeboM dotdw aft tent sigur es ,[oodoe ashse2d 
Bt to sonsbsoz edt tebno ,betse1t yilutetan) teom et stotoess 
“teloolys iweH toRestor? ote! eft .notouttant saoffsoxs 
Fee arb fn i9@edine moxed to gnotebase henisth-enlt oat 
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PREFACE. 

in the last of four works commenced at the same time and sys- 
tematically completed, the Author presents to the Public a work, 
which is based on a thoroushn study of Mediaeval and Renaissance 
architecture, and is intended to elucidate the architecural 
problems of the present day in Seneral and particular, in acc- 
ordance with with the principles of Tectonics (Esthetics). It 
is in reality a condensation of the intellectual work, that 
must be done in all architectural designing, so that if the 
conditions for a solution of the problem are given, one may 
easily and quickly find the correspondins form or motive.The 
form finally assumed by this motive depends on circumstances, 
and is the artistic work of the Architect. The book is at the 
same time a manual of architectural form and composition. 

It is made possible for the architect to conncetedly review 
the more important ideas, to which his problem directly leads, 
so that nothing essential to the artistic treatment of his de- 
sign may be omitted; he has only to decide what motive best 
corresponds to the problem, when merely the leading idea of i 
its form is given. 

As in my Tectonics,I assign to construction the first+place 
in the artistic treatment of Architectural and engineering 
structures. So far as the artistic form may be influenced by 
construction, I have sought to base it on constructive prin- 
Ciples. One, who is guided by the principles of Tectonics, will 
correctly solve every problem. The result of this methodical 
procedure is a&@ Renaissance style, modern in principle, more or 
less similar to the ancient styles and the Italian Renaissance, 
as well as to Mediaeval architecture. Here reason takes the 
rlace of any historical or traditional restraints; reflection 
decides what. is right in any particular case; after reason at- 
tains its end, fancy enters on its right of endowing the motive 
already found with its proper form ~ 

In many cases, I have restricted myself to the rules of the 
Dresden school, as being that in which Modern Renaissance arch- 
itecture is most carefully treated, under the guidance of its 
excellent instructor, the late Professor Hermapn Nicolai. 

Tne fine-grained sandstone of Saxon Switzerland is employed 
for building in Dresden. Hence the dimensions are made as small 
as possible. Larger dimensions are common in other cities, xk ) 


Bean cebliveaiatss ids ot e%@ asnode. nobusd Sisde , 


re eneifatl\ od? sted? dome te1sen ewobnin ond to eoxa edt 
; pergyy sath ast: to enolensmkb eit .tt eteatneonoo of see 
30 svieran ood teddie eyente stoteteds ers egnibl tad 


| an d ,evieasm oot :dtxo edt of berreteneit yltoersd te 
me .. oot :aetbiiod edt to slsoe reg9el 8 of kakbdbaoyesi109 
mr ~e9ee0 ynss nl .ddatl aeznoit]e s 10% bebnstai sagas 
spo od bedtios .slut contains dtiw bedataupos 9d of 
ete {ftw yosm .evideusdxe basot sd tom {fiw Xan 9a? 
q {itn eroe ,sonstsegnt tee1g to 9d oF tebtenon sat 
-Mietdieo batt yem etsdto sey e{tdnu ,eletretem fenortr 
-ad {Liw todtuA od? .ylfut oo¢ ro yiteiad ood betaend 
bedaent ote dae .s{dsep boot 916 ssebi anibse! fata ti 
bm. t43008 seve evel ony ,anoateq secdT .eesalnt tootortive 
fiw .seiv to tntoq istene3 8 mont eletisdem sasiauds yobleaes 
; , Mio) boe s6bees y12ve znivteitese to ytfooittib edt ostlees 
> xl oritemiys od [lade enotixog Jnorsttth seodn Aton A gar 
 -agfesronoo cot ton vibaosd cof rwsstien ,bsqoleveb 
Reser .it0w sdd 10% betinpess etgoboox to 1ede0m sae1h snl 
—* at foods edd 94 stnomtasat Yo ebow deelqmie ond bedat 
j rsdd. Hgnotdd beeesg eves odn ,ad0ed shO78 to gan sat 40% 
a xt no bloode aedodede edt tedt rsqgorg at #& ,ybute to bo 
ens. as dove deol ,booteiebos ylisalo ed o¢ suciottine 


“aleate ett sen of knivieseb eaons to thtened sdt i097 
{edt ,2oinosos? yu dtrw befatespos ete. 10m eesn20q) 19 
ibetostlos . yltetid, ste Atow tdadt to afotewlonoo tnaete 


hn ry ere “ eeonetrogmi) bebtosh lo esshr snidasl o18 
! etodtgA ont | £68 ens niles 
Rares oe terte es Ble, jaa 


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‘af Povo? sobiee sts sonepeisasy aetiet] sdv to enokeacitty),! 4 
fetes alogmoo doide ,dtsoW bedagil ylsaetfiind seel xe, , 
ttle akedieo @ od tagel edd. nestor of beifequoo— 


‘90 svieeen oot tedtie eyexfe stotetaddy sie egnibirod .« 


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3 
where harder stones are to be obtained. The usually massive 
dimensions of the Italian Renaissance are seldom found in 
our less brilliantly lighted North, which compels us to place 
the axes of the windows nearer each other. The Italians were 
compelled to soften the light to a certain degree, while we 
seek to concentrate it. The dimensions of Italian Renaissance 
buildings are therefore always either too massive or too weak, 
bulldings are therefore always either too massive or too weak, 
if directly transferred to the North; too massive, because 
corresponding to a larger scale of the building; too weak, be- 
cause intended for a stronger light. In many cases, it is best 
to be acquainted with a minimum rule, suited to our conditions. 

The work will not be found exhaustive; many will miss what 
the consider to be of great importance, some will possess add- 
itional materials, while yet others may find certain portions 
treated too briefly or too fully. The Author will be contented, 
if theileadinsg ideas are found usable, and are treated with 
sufficient fulness. Those persons, who have ever sought to 
consider abundant materials from a general point of view, will 
realize the difficulty of satisfying every reader and of writ- 
ing a work, whose different portions shall be symmetrically d 
developed, neither too broadly nor too concisely. 

fhe great number of woodcuts required for the work, necessi- 
tated the simplest mode of treatment. As the book is intended 
for the use of architects, who have passed through their peri- 
od of study, it is proper that the sketches should only be 
sufficient to be clearly understood, just such as are drawn 
bg the instructor on the blackboard with crayon. 

For the benefit of those desiring to use the work, who neith- 
er possess nor are acquainted with my Tectonics, the most imp- 
ortant conclusions of that work are briefly collected; they 
are leading ideas of decided importance. 

Berlin. Jan. 1883. The Author. 


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y Moats ‘at er icsinet ek i yah yileotiedies sd}. 
abe eb eee by -ynem Yo bagoqmoo yine 
{ 1edtie tena wees ade $e foitosnnos to sbhoa edt .§ 


oon beatae aye’ -benivib yileas ed to 
F tne ¢: | DE unasaussss ef eran wort mofteiveb A .£ 
a ha) Be, pad Pate vk Pe enoegsat Ins. 


* & aeosbors Db issinsk eidd .noese% ‘Qastortiue & deiw ob 
ot: to. ‘gninatyed eat ak di sonia ¢ysinn asad ITT Ae} 19 

pate neh ashen ni aneieey to ax0t teefgute od? .¢ 
"On ‘eYtdoanye ai ,eanidt 

it “enseensos hight atk orn to daiog t9dard & mont 
ae -seonsidsestae nt yxd 

“Bata 7  esbulozs (ee ent To mofvooanoo antytiaw ed? .{ 
hi in fe »Gnidmotath # ae ,sldateqnoons To slistuensmmoons 
cay 2 ottozeo gatyting afd .éntoq~busse redyid « mot? 2.8 
met: Saceseiua edd yd boteoyguaysebé aa mtiw Ote008 teum yoem 
ha teda mektaloes $d teem dotdw .dnsustinpay eof 
? ott’ wad 

dah edt atin esinomised Seow slode sat .t9dtieh Le 
bre eoviead ne #i snogtag odv dtiw 10 ,eineaerge, tf 
<8) ‘to er ‘edgy al erat Moitastiess gir to sneeu 
| Adora 

et ipdoxcignees eds atin alia sesnsidsest26@ sat .OL 
Lo a .-¢Utotuevy to ytinnw to somatasqgs edt féin batosanoo 
4 .etotost eviteioores eesdt dtiw yoorted nt ed) denn 

yo9q yiséasmelymoo to etesisa0d ebremeb ytelisV .il 
Bi: sezaidt eldetsqmo2 nsewtsd «wooe vino yam edeantao® 
stance: to aquoi) .nottaloa 10 tnententbs .mottetagssy o1sopo7 
®t Brtonedne audt .vedtayot bentdwoo ed ysm atostte anrtes 
& So atlonet of]. .nolicoannom Satyting bas yietisvy to tostts 
| & .anigrevtbd 0 oaratsvmo0o ni tet@nod givette sniveart 
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Dad Geum hae edt ,gotnotoss bas y18 ab ce etwtan mt 2h SI 
be (10% Yo ynomied steiguoo ent .ysw deolgmte sit ni beniasis 
og tused, [fa to tmewerinpes slisenmeqathatadt ef scoqiry 
Isntedxe oft ee ytinng stoloeis ant abnsweb bas ,2o%n0r 


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4 
Recapitulation of the more important laws of general 
Tectonics. 
Section 1. Esthetic Principles. 

1. The esthetically agreeable is only unity in itself, or a 
unity composed of many. 

2. The mode of connection of the many must either be evident 
of be easily divined. 

3. A deviation from unity is disturbing, if without suffici- 
ent reason. 

4. With a sufficient reason, this deviation produces a great-— 
er pleasure than unity, since it is the beginning of variety. 

5. The simplest form of variety in unity, for all visible 
things, is Symmetry. 

6. From a higher point of view, equilibrium surpasses symme- 
try in agreeableness. 
7- The unifying connection of the many excludes everything 

incommensurable or incomparable, as a disturbing element. 

8. From a higher stand-point, the unifying connection of the 
many must accord with an idea,sugsested by the whole, we term 
this requirement, which must be satisfied, that of internal 
trath. 

9. Further, the whole must harmonize with the subject, which 
it represents, or with the purpose it subserves, and with the 
means of its realization. This is the requirement of external 
truth. 

10. The agreeableness changes with the component factors, 
connected with the appearance of unity or variety. The whole 
must be in harmony with these associative factors. 

11. Variety demands contrasts of complementary peculiarities. 
Contrasts may only occur between comparable things. Contrasts 
require preparation, adjustment or solution. Croups of contr- 
asting effects may be combined together, thus enhancing the 
effect of variety and unifying connection. The results of con- 
trasting effects consist in converging or diverging, gradual | 
or rapid, increase or diminution of pleasure or disgust. 

12. As in nature, so in art and tectonics, the end must be 
attained in the simplest way. The complete harmony of form and 
purpose is the indispensable requirement of all beauty in tec- 
tonics, and demands the absolute purity of the external appear- 


say so gede Vhocetinas: ee hacae: end: to’ soneresy ge. 4 
ass ae wc ae detite sdt no ,bned eno oot 6) te 
o” ‘ Oe a -9209%0q edt dttw mtot ent Yo ytt, | , if 
oilat ated fantedxs bas Isntetat to efgioniig aT cL. f 
\,e8.t ,ottetretosiedo eft to tnemetkupss ens asertanod 
Tigh to eoidekwedostsdo svitonidarbh eds to sonentmorg 
: oo egntdt saodt to gntosi{g edt saispey emts beebi pagriat 
t sabe) to enoeses no ~bneoraiosd sary of sonsdiogmr yrabano 
@tot to ce epee tedt) .noidesitianottnevn0. to qterraond 
. | So yeeograq edt yd bertupss 
J tons biden to noltatnsestgey sit 10 ,morfesilodwya .al 
> ,enare Ientetzs to ensem yi betnewoiges yisoe1sh 
abaaietes: to .gnoktgsonoo [etens: to noiseoittnoeieg 
a ccen 10 ,batm edt of eldttqeoteq ylno ef yrilssr eeoun 
5 pete to ,sfodw a ea asee od of tee72 oof 10 Sldreiv 
oO base eetnonssso .etosn [notfodays .medod elgaie & yo 
qi edd tot noiessigxe to ensem ete ,BTnsmynom bas 
| ty? ’ : . ) ZGan to 
SD ieabiciesn nget! act tasneli. acshabes ad? .IT mottos? 
B odd he hie qoanerai 2 Se to fodmya ent ef tutog eA? .t 
as ; ~kottouttenoo Leottiemos® des 
ry to poh} oad Serb onm00 ei etntoqg to tisq 6 ativ 6S 
aos in o8 of noktsier steds of Aatbioco« ,myindtitops bas 
Bie scree ats baa) svods .dtel one InztT TeAtonN, ,ensig 
)OSnk bebivih et sent ass Rp suit oft aedtedw baa ,#i bacied 
: Baars. ; (iy > vettso Laupent a0 Laupe 
sen pesael hae 10 sfbbta waainnihed ge safog’ sdT .f 
sian B ee eodentmotg [siosae se1rope: ,edivers to ettaeo 
Bi bas <feteney edd ni fetoeqe eis af If stAdW ,sotrotoas 
ae ot ebeen ylno tntog eteibemietat mA .oidcinstostedo 
a } 10 ont otnt ebutingsa/isent{ s Yo motaivib eat .b 
mit 31 .quory 4:88 10 ,Yutemmye esi mort Qoiasely ec adisg 
ei to aesl ed tisg slbbia. edd ti ptasatmotg sd drag, elb 
Seer etom et qdoth brooee 6dh .adiag shire sdt neds 
-aaaal ert etc no beoslq snso08 eat Yo @npooos no .Jexst aad 
4 afg STA .est4q Svit 10 wot ,seTdd Ofmt anottetvid .¢ 
sbetmesos eis as3eq base to elbbim oad ti 
y evit so avet .setdt asd? etom oft moretvibh « atiW .0 
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5 
appearance of the object, as the lowest step of the beautiful, 
on the one hand, on the other being the agreement of the qual- 
‘ity of the form with the purcose. 

13. The principle of internal and external truth implicitly 
comprises the requirement of the characteristic, i.e., of the 
prominence of the distinctive characteristics of different 
things; idead aims require the placing of those things of sec- 
ondary importance in the background, on reasons of essential 
propriety or conventionalization, that modification of form, 
required by the purpose. 

14. Symbolization, or the representation of what cannot be 
directly represented by means of external signs, comprises the 
personification of general conceptions, of religious ideas, 
whose reality is only perceptible to the mind, or which are in- 
visible or too great to be seen as a whole, of complex things | 
by a simple token. Symbolical acts, ceremonies and objects, 
and monuments, are means of expression for the personification 
of Art. 

Section II. The geometrical Hlement in Tectonics. 

1. The point is the symbol of unity because it is the simpl- 
est geometrical construction. 

2. With a pair of points is connected the idea of symmetry 
and equilibrium, according to their relation to a horizontal 
plane, Whether right ana left, above and below, before and 
behind it, and whether the line joinins them is divided into 
equal or unequal parts. 

3. The point as beginning, middle or end point, focus or 
centre of sravity, requires special prominence as a unity, in 
tectonics, where it is the special in the general, and is 
characteristic. An intermediate point only needs to be accented. 

4. The division of a linear magnitude into two or three equal 
parts is pleasing from its symmetry, or as a group, if the mid- 
dle part be prominent; if the middle part be less or greater 
than the side parts, the second group is more pleasing thak 
the first, on account of the accent placed on it. 

5. Divistions into three, four or five parts, are pleasing 
if the middle or end parts are accented. 

6. With a division into more than three, four or five parts, 
the whole toses its distinctness, and its agreeableness dimin- 


lshes. 


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py cm » gtuemegnet1s Ofttneoxs 10 oiadne0 8 Kol ee 
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in ydus axhsop tetuge2 .ydgergollatey1o to emsteye ont to, eno: 
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7+ By division into a sreat number of parts, the series rep- 
resents a conformity to law, whose agreeableness increases, if 
it be composed of periodically recurring divisions and groups, 
enhanced by interruptions. 

S. The grouping of individual points around another may fol- 
low a centric or excentric arrangement. 

9» The division of a surface may be:- a, linera; b, according 
to two rectangular axes, o: to three axes making angles of 60° 
witn each other; c, according to axes independent of the forms 
of the elements of the surface: d, centric or excentric. 

Linear division of surfaces may occur, which consists of re- 
ally harmonizing elements, in which both directions are equally 
accented, right and left of the longitudinal axis, and there- 
fore equilibrate each other, or in which these differ from 
each other. 

10. Division of surfaces according to two or three axes, we 
term web systems; that according to axes independent of the 
form elements, we call embroidery, mosaic, braid, lattice, knit, 
Chain, net or cell systems, according to the mode of constrac- 
tion employed. 

li. The centric and excentric division of surfaces produce 
radial and spiral arrangements. 

iz. A great many regular mathematical curves, never employed 
in Art, possess a decided esthetic importance as forms of motion. 

13. The distribution of points in space may be placed under 
one of the systems of crystallography, regular, quadratic, rh- 
ombic, hexagonal, as well as under the three clinical systems 
with inclined axes. 

14, Spaces may be divided by planes into cubic, parallelopi- 
pedic, rhombohedric and tetratedric elements, and by combining 
these forms, it may be entirely occupied by rhombic. dodecahed- 
ric elements. . 

15. With the ideas of above, below, right, left, before, be- 
hind, within and without, are associated the ideas of values, 
and with these are joined those of coordination, subordination 
and independence. 

Section III. Form. 
I. The Form itself. 
1. Nothing belongs to pure perception, that lies within or 


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‘4 ve metsoursende 8 to noidetages toB yiilidagso sd? .3 
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bet sNaviy oh wetsef edt eealay .bcv0t sd tomnean dé Lete 
7 togiey sit to tnehneqedat ylortine 9d yeaomtot sat .OL 
wd Bentereted ed ret eudd yew wict a ta nottosfes oA? tL 
gts 6d teed yao bas edd eneem sti yd teat ,esogisq oft 
| gest sé yeu. Lotetead feo yilsorseroeddy aro? edt Sf 
of 3ntwo wedtone asd een nkstie> s [itfet of 
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Without the forn. 

2 The more completely the peculiarities of the ground forms 
are presented to the actual perception, the more favorably they 
appear to the esthetic sense. 

3. The more the characteristic relations of pure perception 
are changed to actual perception, the more useful will these 
be in esthetic respects. 

4. Crystalline forms are actually perceived by means of the 
prominence of their angles, edges and surfaces, and this is 
made possible by the optical peculiarities of the material. To 
make the axes visible, mark the angles, central points of edges 
and surfaces, and planes of cleavage, which assists the actual 
perception. 

9° Round bodies only appear in relief through optical pecul- 
larities, and this appearance is heightened by meridians, by | 
drawing generatrices, and by the actual prominence of axes, 
centres,and foci, as well as of tangential surfaces. 

B. Relations of purpose and form. 

6. very form that hinders the attainment of an end is to 
be avoided in Tectonics; every other one is to be sought, whi- 
ch may further the satisfaction of a purpose. 

7+ One important condition of the form treatment lies in the 
capability of combination of the elements of a structure. 

S. The capability 6or separation of a construction may deter- 
mine its form treatment. 

9. The form may be determined by the purpose, in that in sen- 
eral it cannot be found, unless the latter is given. 

10. The form may be entirely independent of the purpose. 

11, The selection of a form may thus far be determined by 
the purpose, that by its means the end may best be attained. 

12. The form,theoretically most tasteful may be less adapted 
to fulfil a certain purpose than another, owing to accidental 
circumstances. 

13. A modification of form is permissible, through the possi- 
bility of the misuse of the peculiarities of an object for an- 
other purpose. 

14. Modification of forms may be required by the number of 
modes of application. 

15. The forms may remain constant, even if the purpose be 


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Wich aeaaet ata totixdioacas ad? .f. 
fi: ed tam aotdogrtendo ven! 1) 
Neefhgobsbe: rae pS 0 tnebnejeh ed yeo wroF wot 
tiomte od dostdb me to eeivineifuceg [sievee tI .OS 
6 at tnentsersMitot edi ,soaogtey lersvse ot barljas 
of br iyay (4h i onogid ati base eeltizsiivosy ati to 
By amore? ib sot bevittome a settiasifwoeq sesit YI. .IS 
> yan m1ot end emis to elavietnt elderebtenoo sexe 
.  ° sbestkestloosy bas saogiuy 3d¢ divin eonshto208 
dose ot betantbiodwe eis sesogtsq to eelise @ TI .SS 
es © otaemteets mot ead 2enimreds5 corassoous treat 
Tasasse7d ‘mot @ stivoss esrogina stanibicod .¢S 
etnveoDa os aL dtod 
pea bas [strate to nortelea .0 
yoonetedoy to moldelofh .s 
ope Tot Sayolqne eis sonetatac: siotinn to amiol -bS 
leant sit ;f20o to to .J1cw hae Letretam ,taator 
t Stevixongge to sorsiste gd e443 eenuAD send Anttourd 
tess edyforis to emrod .tost109 yifes{senoent esos 
. Od doetdue eevutowite [le 10t aldatstertg yino gor 
sot saci ated? sontea .kntess{a Jaom esa dud ,2en 
} ae eTNSIBGIR Gf oreate 
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} Snitemine bas zaiytev rot tmoibegxs ns ef sonsdereet 4 
»mtot artqgolevne smee Sa49 antotater elidw .aqrl 
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6 esom bas .bebiove adot 918 sonaveiast dicting to awiot. 
4 ands -betinpet 618 noitose eao19 To. eskaeno bs 
goo fas moitenegerg eth ,Isivetaé edT so 0 
ea 2 ety ee antbhlied .1 
| rib oota,) scelersotell Roiblivd ‘wil 
pntbitns. 40 tneatssxs m7o0t od tot ewel Letened {a > 
+ te Wifsop ¢df atin aynsdo yedt ;bodetidsdies sd tonne ° 
yedd go8 sbetiqges ek If doidn of ss0q1Ng eat bow Lasiot 
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16. The modification of forms depends on the number and suc- 
céssion of the purposes for which, and according to which, the 
article may be employed. 

17. The capacity for uSe* lessens: gi tb aneth=. autrer ene ee 
-48._The*constructionsmay be destroyed: by a: singte. sases Tse 
19. Form may be defendent on an entire series of purposes. 
20. If several peculiarities of no be simultaneously 
applied to several purposes, its form*treatment is a function 
of its peculiarities and its purpose. | 

21. If these peculiarities be empléyed for different purpos- 
esat considerable intervals of time, the form may chanse in 
accordance with the purpose and peculiarities. 

22. If a series of purposes are subordinated to each other, 
their succession determines the form treatment. 

23. Coordinate purposes require a form treatment which takes 
both into account. 

C. Relation of Material and Form. 
a. Relation of coherence. 

24. Forms of uniform resistance are employed for economy of 
weight, material and work, or of cost; the difficulty of cons- 
tructing these causes the preference of approximate forms to 
those theoretically correct. Forms of absolute resistance are 
not only preferable for all structures subject to intense for- 
ces, but are most pleasing, since their capacity for resisting 
Strain is apparent. 

25. The use of approximate instead of exact forms of uniform 
resistance is an expedient for varying and animating the out- 
line, while retaining the same enveloping form. 

26. In case of bodies subject to but small external forces, 
forms of uniform resistance are to be avoided, and more decid- 
ed changes of cross section are required. 

b, ce The Material, its preparation and combination. 
I. Building gonstruction. 
A. Building Materials. 

27. General laws for the form treatment of buildings materials 
cannot be established; they change with the quality of the ma- 
terial and the purpose to ahich it is applied. But the follow- 
ing are valid in special cases. 

Hard stones, wrought with difficulty, should be dressed as 


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F =i 84 pi “yo * ebsaigt sd 
ea Ilex as at xb is Siainte 2ehotn bash .as 
veidstine yiler Besos asotroy bas senose deniers 
oe enecenind th eintostidors ai esea (sostoaxte seont 
ai: "Sesotot lenistxe sievse of fosidua sea 
ie sesnosss Seekaton? ot Saogee17109 asnote beeimpoonl .eS 
Barb in4 a ys edtonenode betsope oF asnote be 
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yd betkepses sie adnio;, on s7edw tnsibsyxs eviseroost 
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"eeiowse 9dg To aoiToe1td sdv Soe emote Ss Yo sostape 
eur. e18¢6n Sat to wolt bisRKaKOb sdt of, barope 
eri aR ef senotvs Asad to ytased sit .ff 
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at to nee ot waltwie sd yen eaortgad to entot sat’ .dé 
ebenzed ti ,senot] bred to eectt eirl :to4sdny Ti Veen 
yd bebnasod ed SInode exolid bseeety to ewtot sAT .cé 
‘binom # yd beesesqai ed tc ,esostine Leotrbarlyo 0 
betiat{ eis yealo benwsd bae bsisbos Yo ewrot sal .oé 
bee ebsiaizde' edd yd {moitostoma buns tsiles .eookens 
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little as possible and be simply treated+if polished;slight c 
curvatures are preferable for small forgs, strong curvatures 
for large ones. Softer stones, like serpentine and marble, may 
be turned. sg 

28. Hard stones wrought with diffiénity, as well as coarse 
Srained stones and portous stones, are generally suitable for 
those structural uses in architecture and engineering, which 
are subject to severe external forces. 

29. Uncoursed stones correspond to Cyclopeéan masonry, cours- 
ed stones to squared stonework. 

30. To save work and obtain a stronger bond, the stones sho- 
uld be as large as possible. 

31. Parallelopipedic blocks of stone composing the parts of 
a structure require a suitable mode of jointing to save mate- 
rial and work; the joints should never be employed as a purely 
decorative expedient where no joints are required by the cons- 
truction. Parts of the building may be divided by joints, but 
the height of its members should never exceed the maximum hei- 
ght possible of quarry bed. 

32. The fineness of the grain and the magnitude of the forms 
employed, as well as the distance from the eyes of the obsery- 
er, determines the mode of cutting employed for the external | 
surface of the stone, and the direction of the strokes must be 
suited to the downward flow of the water. 

33. The beauty of dark stones is much enhanced by poe 
that of light stones but slightly. . 

34. The forms of bricks may be similar to those of soft sto- 
nes, if unburnt; like those of hard stones, if burned. 

35. The forms of pressed bricks should be bounded by plane 
or cylindrical surfaces, or be impressed by a mould. . 

26. The forms of modeled and burned clay are limited in dim- 
ensions, relief and projection, by the shrinkage and cracking 
of the clay, as well as by the difficulty of an amiform burn- 
ing, and by the flexibility of the material. 

37. The dimensions of a brick determine the dimensions of 
all ornamental terra cotta blocks, and of blocks of cut stone 
used in the same construction, and limit the size and choice 
of forms of section, but admit of a peculiar decorative and 
constructive treatment, which gives a peculiar character to 


brick masonry. 


Te ee eee 
‘da. "ae ae) ie ie) 


¢ wbiletnesen puibetbud 9 ge bees etei9nes dnsweD .6e 
Davao tr 10 .efefieten Jess t9dto we exsl emse sas oa 
ena tuo 88 Yew Smee Sie mt betasit od oF @F -aninebied 
fy © fine otbeqtqolsllarsq ssoubo1g boow to Barkow sAT 06 
¢ yp eesntzey eens at etetier bas ,amtot bentws ,enr0t oinb 
‘bose gaibned yd BVP od abo enopt Yel .geivied yd benies 
! e, . -Lattesan ent yokesenta “9 
” reas oF NRRL EY boow To ddunewte tdgtie ed? .Ob 
J a ‘gO hadi ae oftsil es juo od wetgkt Sot Jedt gertypSt 
Par gud \satog aids of sosqeet ni Setiwil ef Jnemtssas #101 
: bas jemvtadort qseb ,betoslzen od yeu aind .eboow sensh baa 
ee ) bevamine as bas ,199000 yeu eerdrt ed? to esoitqorvisent 
| Nel “— \ ,betteps? ei esiuteviso 2oomte bas toile to aotse 
“edd so | yloritas ¢18 not Jeso Yo ansot en? stb 
t Le $iw oft bas yniteso to eesoorg eft .Wietdeq bivor 
MOIL Jeaso Jedd ,[aisens2 ok bise sd yan FI .bivow sat 
foftixe belfer-ntat to asteig ,adosido aids tot olde 
eeriups: sostive L[entesdxe esti antdtow to ysivortIIb ead 
meige Jeet; edi teds .,efdtusog 8 dsoome 28 Sd oF Ratieas 
‘to eiteq bebeol yinnorwts tot bstqeba ylisitivoess #t esxem 
ed of eis ASgnerd2 wiotine to ewret dotew sot .etadowade 
fW es {lew as .fetretem to yson0es to tauo008 no bebnsumd 
jo” ont .ssostie beantotas bas ,eaoktexotisy .edis gnineds 
: ~2908i19 
moo mi emict tsbnele bes elquie eeitees nor ddyvo1% .Sb 
tosh 1. m1 ofd ,eldieeog as anotenewib erisl ee to nortous 
tonturh baa enottienert [awhess .sslame antiosiorg ‘to 
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foes none’ bas eotuteviso eltnes ebneush A10w dez10% ofS 
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to costise L[enretxs. sdt no At0OW yiwioewelg qo ohh 
oYITSAs9090 qletuloeds seolnn ,besbkovaled of et sori 
) eeddm eeloidta ant beyolgms ed no1rt daavorww tl .ce 
arenes ed yeu yeds doidw of anisite eat ehesore eet 
ak yeLdfea tube ar. anro?. Vol eteinay test 
ef bas tas to eei¢rfenp 5003 ent sentdmoo feat2 db. 
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38. Cement concrete used as a building material is subject 
to the same laws as other cast materials, or if wrought after 
hardening, is to be treated in the same way as cut stone. 

39. The working of wood produces parallelopipedic and cylin- 
dric forms, turned forms, and reliefs in endless variety, obt- 
ained by carving. Many @orms can be produced by bending and 
by pressing the material. 

40. The slight strength of wood perpendicular to the fibres 
requires that the fisres be cut as little as possible, and the 
form treatment is limited in respect to this point; but in hard 
and dense woods, this may be neglected, deep incisions and fre- 
interruptions of the fibres may occur, and an animated altern- 
ation of slight and strong curvatures is required. 

41. The forms of cast iron are entirely dependen% on the 
mould, pattern, the process of casting and the withdrawal from 
the mould. It may be said in general, that cast iron is prefer- 
able for thin objects, plates or thin-walled articles, that t 
the difficulty of working its external surface requires the 
casting to be as smooth as possible, that its great strength 
makes it peculiarly adapted for strongly loaded parts of a 
structure, for which forms of uniform strength are to be rec— 
ommended on account of economy of material, as well as strens- 
thening ribs, perforations, and thickared surfaces, in proper 
places. 

42. Wrought iron requires simple and slender forms in const- 
ruction of as large dimensions as possible, the rounding-off 
of projecting angles, gradual transitions and diminutions, and 
in engineering structures a restriction to the use of bars of 
the usual trade sections and forms. 

43. Forged work demands gentle curvatures and smooth transi- 
tions, flatness im. thick plates, variety in thin ones. 

44, Supplementary work on the external surface of wrought 
iron is to be avoided, unless absolutely necessary. 

45. If wrought iron be employed for articles whose strength 
far exceeds the strains to which they may be exposed, the grea- 
test varietw of forms is admissible. 

46. Steel combines the good qualities of cast and of wrought 
iron in the highest degree, and therefore it allows a wider 
range of foru, as well as the use of very thin or very massive 


bata joes wey: Sipideaal hectebseaey et bas ,ediag 
 efletfoq Bnivisoet rot yiosgeo # fag 

otisd7sb. lobeviaty atetetos weqqoo te eomel{soxe sat .{b 
09 Intktoned bas detfoy eakt ati ddim .f10w bevemmed [le 
‘wenotisbtxo att to ytilidewb bar toloo satt edt oals bas 
‘aot ytilidetive Istosge s ettno.agaiy ber bas eesig .38 
| steqgqoo Yo estdited[uosq edt to deom dtiw agar 
w boas teso tot bayolame ad yam onts bs bas .Cd 
a -2etalg of drow baserottsg tot es [flow ae 
bas sites! tdyisd ,s0foo Stidn yrovile adi dttw nt? .0¢ 
a8 eanivers oni? tot oldetine et .mortabixo of sonedel 
eharanit tol es 

secottourtedo? gotbiliod .8 

“ gomdounte betntolL ets enoitoutianoo smote .I¢ 
hy ake TE: 8 eetoamsveg bas exniliso .etioqgue 

) \antaods gael ead opitqmoD anotiousitaaco neboow. .$c 
e velien atot of patedmtt ‘to wsdjex0¢ Aattniot bas Aninediv 
| bat {Ie to a aaa .2700[% ,egnilren  .stio 
ae Lt -s92ntonIte2 ASsdto 
ae to anes. af befoennos es enotiouttanco [ete .é¢ 
> bas mio tot antisenrzne at beyolqme ,aysx Sas adlod 
: Ieotaeddem mt yiletosqes bas ,5oow to eevodd od aeliate 
te Bae sotol dtod of toeidea ,zenidosm antvow rot anits 

| vo | o(ads0w fatel}) Aton atdtrmeiood :yrsarol .IT 

to ezat{snace bas ebisod ayolgne yileses yYIsarol be 
2 «arco! .egaklieo sistf venottitisg aids sot saotenenib 
jor yltasl Sas .asoittel bas epntiier ,ewobmiw bas e100b 
es Mot exodw .estotontte tdaif ous yrecro, aL exo ses 
g10g Teds no nedt beew [streten to ymonoos no 180.58 
fimeit .2tntot ofseom ,ezntisnsg yd Satosanoo ata yods 
Rar by \ sebntd {Le to-sgntotdsal 
PD Sento, edt to second eitf .dttmexool ed% Yo sdaow saT «cc 
DRE e1etou7de 2 to eaotd10g Ieqtonizy ois ,to)seods wort a8tixb 
. tied ‘Yo ¢add add snentworg vest et tdxiew to dnowels od? Jens 
p20! ssotata base sisd to besogmo> sxe yeds etentol edni sndgne 
‘he ‘ebin 8 aseeeod satwedil ysdd baa .2gnkautit brs eyslisvo 
Ue best! pine mort Atin ,bequete bre tned+,dgcor" .eam0t to 
. sesnlov ofat belfor-nedely bar aied ,atxe Isnthutrgool 2 suede 
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parts, and is especially remarkable for its tempering colors, 
and a capacity for receiving polish. 

47, The excellence of copper consists in its adaptation to 
all hammered work, with its fine polish and beautiful color, 
and also the fine color and durability of its oxidations. 

48. Brass and red brass unite a special suitability for cast- 
‘ings with most of the peculiarities of copper. | 
49. ;ead and zinc may be employed for cast and wrought work, 

as well as for perforated work in plates. 

50. Tin with its silvery white color, bright lustre and res- 
istance to oxidation, is suitable for fine castings as well 
as for tinnins. 

B. Building Constructions. 

51. Stone constructions are jointed structures, forming walls, 
supports, ceilings and pavements. 

52. Wooden constructions comprise the lengthening, deepening, 
widening and jointing together of timbers,to form walls, supp- 
orts, ceilings, floors, panelings of all kinds, frameworks and 
other structures. | 

53. Metal constructions are connected by means of rivets, b 
bolts and keys, employed in engineering for form and structure 
Similar to those of wood, and especially in mechanical engine- 
ering for moving machines, subject to both force and vibration. 

TI. Joinery; Locksmith’s work. (fetal work). 

54. Joinery usually employs boards and scantlings of small 
dimensions for thin partitions, light ceilings, floors, stairs, 
doors and windows, railings and lattices, and lastly for furn- 
iture.Works in joinery are light structures, whose forms depend 
pather on economy of material used than on their purposes, and 
they are connected by panelings, mosaic joints, framings and 
latticings of all kinds. . 

55. The works of the locksmith, like those of the joiner, ad 
differ from those of,the principal portions of a structure in 
that the element of weight is less prominent than that of str- 
ength; like joinery they are composed of bars and plates, of 
overlays and trimmings, and they likewise possess a wide range 
of forms. Wrought, bent and stamped, with iron parts turned 
about a longitudinal axis, bars and plates rolled into volutes 
and springs, perforated plates, etc., these are the elementary 


os a ae ne 
er nad ni Mey fe bse 
: ee ae eres ia 
: as presen | etson efdtiwedool of 1silsoeg paki’ 
val ees We Abmaherrgh Hi ckergh, ee Oth elkixel, .IIr: 
7 ‘a “ xet ,elaiiesam evowdt? bas dyuod ,eldixelt mor? .3¢ 
jdtmi ~roktebiordas: ,por1dat evox gitortexosin asoubosg 
_ Shimane ao ,2tie? ,plrow aiedo ,ettonten bsdsen 
Of Bs8 © .IT tebas meviz esostiue to noier 
| at ae at bari 4 e@0feeo .VI. 
ot Rudiesne & o- ebneged. ddgasate seotw ebotaiol .(& 
Mel sonny ofesom edt no bessd S18 emtot seodw ioe 
secoindsetolis¢s\ .V 
tow d%8 Cfase eeeriqaoo ylistoeqes einT .8¢ 
Betotannstey Je to eyoll{e tentt set bos aletom ‘eldon 
aeeo071g i, seteitetam Roibliad es beaseto elasem snd 
bo $nteedo .gaideifog .ayoils to antidote sai 
qmase .baitelg ,3ntievite Sue antblis .aidote Baty 
fitea sdt bas ana ee7mselit .Atvow olfain ,noitatac 
ean -8enotse avoio 
: eadinotosel IV 
e ws & at i AN eames besiail #@ af eoigotoeT wc 
ay a |  ebkitow bisIng bas Sonand 
be Res eantiesend. .-IIV, 
nqmoo aoe neal yifeqtonizg ek drow e'relemen® 0d 
eafa a4 [lex aletastan beeee1g bas teso to tnomtae ts sat 
1. to fe edd bas .Atow sovgrirt tas bodaslt .aminels 
eee seoime1s) sIIIV 
: ot bas sRIsttog to aninotdest edt yltetdo at adimexsds3 
$ doetdee ei tr ,yslo Zatyolgms eeiatawiat Lesimoes reado 
fegi yd .baed eno ed? noveisiisrflyosa atk yd Lortnoo-edt 
OF £ oF Bninied ati bas aasnoviaedds Ons ystortasla side 
fo8g suolinini ett yi todto edt a0 ,sasm yesel’y 10 ytsitt 
fe goo ined 10 nsdotd ylirees Rated tc ,sasiariis to asrdi 
a per tana eh dttw bead yloicting gated to bas .93 
| Es oe | -m10% to STA SdT LTT 
nt sett ERE er tetles sq at mot to d18 sat «Sd: 
es fimit ntediso nidtin betolitest ynied ylao ,w1ot to soiedo 
ei | -beyolque [etistam edd yd 
eebede bas tapi to enottsisd .5. 
taom mot edt at totfer to m#gneidse endl .€d 
evbenebancan soels ott et? to ytienetat egerevs 9nd 
ice: pA OO. ers 


_ 


i ” | 
R ah i ie oe 


12 
forms peculiar to locksmith’s work. 
TII. Textile Art. 

56. From flexible, tough and fibrous materials, textile art 
produces wickerwork, woven fabrics, embroideries, knitted and 
netted networks, chain works, felts, on the basis of the div— 
ision of surfaces given under II, 9 and 10. 

IV. Mosaics. 

$7. Joinings whose strength depends on a cementing material 

and whose forms are based on the mosaic system. 
Ve. Metallotechnics. 

58. This especially comprises small art works,;employing the 
noble:: metals and the finer alloys of copper, in addition to 
the metals classed as building materials. The processes are t 
the etching of alloys, polishing, chasing, damascening, engsa- 
ving, etching, gilding and silvering, plating, stamping, incr- 
ustation, niello work, filjgree work, and the setting of pre- 
cious stones. 

VI. Tectonics. 

59. Tectonics in a limited sense produces in a hard material 

turned and inlaid works. 
VII. Hnamelins. 

60. Enameler’s work is principally glass making and comprises 
the treatment of cast and pressed materials, as well as glass 
blowing, flashed anf filigree work, and the art of enameling. 

VIII. Ceramics. 
61Ceramics is chiefly the fashioning of pottery, and like all 
other technical industries employing clay, it is subject tot _ 
the control by its peculiaritieson the one hand, by its remark- 
able plasticity and adhesiveness and its burning to a porous, 
fritty or glassy mass, on the other by its injurious peculiar- 
ities of shrinkage, of being easily broken or bent out of sha- 
pe, and of being uniformly burned with difficulty. 

IX. The Art of Form. 

62. The art of form in pure relief is entirely free in the 
choice of form, only being restricted within certain limits 
by the material employed. 

a. Relations of light and shade. 

63. The strength of relief in the form must harmonize with 

the average intensity of sunlight in the place considered, 


kee 


Bi ic > adc Ro: shontdyind to senaeb ent dtiw a8 
0 seead en efaenevar tere to sesetont cele teva bas 
bic’ i Dek Mary ker ree Balmakyy + ¢ Ma -enoia 

u sxcm eons: neds: colby tail acania Desai seTK9% .bd 
ned? t97890 taAsage. ee or. -“lseisvaco bar 
te. D> Ba, eM Lee #8S"0 

adi To, seye edt aor Sevlians at pike edt aA «Cd 
> ent, ,teol ots sbede bas Iinil to anoctisbe12 eatt sat 
te rb: i .yfeatevnos ;anidetosy ti ae bas Joniteibat ers]egis 
= IOY ent bas ,Joniveth Tk nsat Inatath atom we8qqe atoeido 
tk te | agers hs hy aisido of ,edtl fotede od tenn 
edn) eTavisedo efit sort tnateib 

mre. to nottstsyzaxs na, snuso ys notsezbartt dd 
mento: ot eonerete? atin ,toetdo aft to solteool sad od 
c ; cic eatostdo dated %0 

at end to: enoigeler sid to sachin Iscitago saT .Xd 
ehortetebienc®s sitinpst noitoe1£ 1fedd. bre ano 

-neswted eslotixe 1sddo Yo 1sdmyn edt T8de81g eal .8d 
- geeqge sf [Lin toatetb Sion, oat ,fosido end bane iawise 
ae on998 ti [lin teresa edt ,18net 

h ia to dégeb sa¢ enseeel L[atvtetan eat to yonersqensat 22 
: ad-ond 2a eotetniniS dorin ,tostie tesler edt baa exo 
fait edt etnseetiet yonetedenesT .doet19q stom esm09ed yO 
Won 916 alettotam tneragansis etotereds .slraertt bar sean 
iq evitstooeb 10% ylno tod ,etiseg [anntonits tot bayolg 

a toute betndtaterh ylsbiw tims aeostive AaisvoalteA .OF 
) botattneoneo bas qiede to ,beviwo yitdgris to anely BE 
aii-soints Sas bedetfog gntved elaitetad. .bevies ygnoise 
m y m bedetoynideth y{qiade didioxe yllersnet esostape 
deen to) efatrotem elidw ,acottoestes bas ,sbede bos-tagel 
eae bas enotiisnait #toe node e1enog svidoottes 
t edd of cotntevive teltaey fae reotede to eisiagotg ead 
jtem08 bas sno esuidenoe Sinteg sw (e1SHOY anisgoeltan Asow 
; ‘ Ree eotanimobesg of redio saz 

a | eamto® Iaoktlodmee .0 
re nee atria of 

193 10. Gadesines ‘eat oi hueebnhe base .« ty 
Be dcsihdnes nee soteeofone bas euoloam ‘to cottelemedt svat 
une tatee encanal # Sateemeonast «8 ~tete emrot lagia 


x3 
and with the degree of brightness of the colored materials, 
and must also increase or diminish inversely as these condi- 
tions. 

64. Nearer objects appear brighter than those more distant, 
and conversely, brighter objects appear nearer than darker 
ones. 

65. As the object is removed from the eyes of the observer, 
the fine gradations of light and shade are lost, the object — 
appears indistinct and as if vanishing; conversely, indistinct 
objects appear more distant than if distinct, and the form 
must be sketch like, to obtain greater distinctness, if it be 
distant from the observer. 

66." Irradiation may cause an exaggeration of form, according 
to the location of the object, with reference to other bright 
or dark objects. Mi 

67. The optical deceptions of the relations of the dimensi- 
ons and their direction require consideration. 

68. The greater the number of other articles between the ob- 
server and the object, the more distant will 1t appear, the 
fewer, the nearer will it seem. 

69. Transparency of the material lessens the depth of shad- 
ows and the releef effect, which diminishes as the transparen- 
cy. becomes more perfect. Transparency represents the light, 
weak and fragile, therefore transparent materials are not em- 
ployed for structural parts, but only for decorative purposes. 

70. Reflecting surfaces emit widely distributed likht rays, 
if plane or slightly curved, or sharp and concentrated rays if 
strongly curved. Materials having polished and mirror-like 
surfaces generally exhibit sharply distinguished masses of 
light and shade, and reflections, while materials of weak 
reflective powers show soft transitions and reflections, hence 
the propriety of sharper and gentler curvatures in the form of 
weak reflecting powers; we permit sometimes one and sometimes 
the other to predominate. 

D. Symbolical Forms. 
a. Relative Yorms. 
I. Limiting Forms. 

71. Limiting forms indicate the beginning or termination, or 
have the relation of nucleus and enclosure. Beginning and ter- 
minal forms are:- a, disconnected at top or on both sides; 6, 


‘ i a 4 or “i sai 3 : yp aenoe rere | , 4 jet 
| a A 
‘ae | ; ; at 
pate {a¢cost fi Yo" ebne’ bosoonneo. D> imottod ts betoonnooett 
: x edn eiaeckaiae' peeks istnostion to abne begoenmoo .b 
09 bn ‘edooanooeid qeborsia to abge betoonnoo .t :edsoqque 
edt sel gente exengxe ayewles tenn erokteniaist fetoon 
fe jataaneson: Ot of Boviennsit bewiot sved yodt , aa 
iasgheype’ ‘edt tantsye qlevoensinoqe eeot smiot 1198) 
weit bas seFt Tot sdetrqorqgs et foive1008) Yo mot Lex 
y bas .etotte bas efioggue tot eeqrite [antbudtanol one 
sine mee Jo saoas of a8ltete enottonnl svad anottentmws bs 
‘in “bns 3niaoqqo S18 eeeds gonte ,dned das soot . beer 
= esd 
- ent tad .bemrot o8 ‘ye oF 918 Naditian to edfmid .Si 
r tto ahade to .pegbe etf no betiaristien iasqqa yan Le 
i yd besofons od to ,againeqo to etefass edd edrawod 
(th etivpet geostise to anoteivid .abstd if to aamot 
8 edt eee tes .atieg tneost bs Yo bas atsbiod to exit 
Ae’ ' ,enottr0q owt sat to noiden 
‘i Ng ar ety 835 prt semto® [anortiena1T .S 
a 90 nottoae Bs010 sno miotasers antot steibewraial fl) 
Pee | ‘ | etedtons ‘otnt noid 
4 tey icsalie's edeotbnt em71ot Yo etoemeakaes7d .bf 
0 sie to Adzne1te edd ytinoaisg ysu baa ,atraq be 
Bg sno to ,1sito dose oF etieq: divod to enortteles wan eft 
fbn ‘meo yous <asds0 sat ot t1e7 sedtten to "o ,1S9fto ot 
en omit 10 Shrerdeneg ene fenteres 10 yientorfesy 
ye en i ferenes at soisosath 
‘edt betsiooses ers ytivaonoo bre qiixsynod ATER .ct 
adt ao ,notea{oxe bne noretsva .wotefuyet to noiterns 
agit edt ,norsqese1 bas nofeatads to szodt testo ant nO 
ft Lentares bas gotanedo tot asttel ont anitaed ee flew av 
yt bos gnidoen st of hevisono> of M{tw anotervih sat .at | 
ob ett host eanse edt at eseschaa Rattosnnod ts Ifsn se 
é LR Oe eRBOP) aeand en% to 
6a S16 4tedien to egpotk to enorervib’etategs2 .tT 
Ba Wome ee somyeeseg Ifeme Baavebation .esvoo ', ets lit 
al eAaToT evitetoost ww 
ious ane Barto? {adnemenio Yo noktactiqqe Yaedgin ex? .Sv 
i‘ Pebete Tb as [atretam ett soseer499 OF .pur0t evitelsr to 
“ea snore edt of abnoqeeito> ato? [entetxs sft node ,.9.7 
ies view & tebaet of ek Raabe tesfgaie sat -baw 


m\ oe 
a yi 
op 


ae 


ae 


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Ai 
4 
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14 
disconnected at bottom; c, connected ends of horizontal struts; 
d, connected ends of horizontal ties; e, connected ends of 
supports; f, connected ends of tierods=- Disconnected and con- 
nected terminations must always express that by their own str- 
ength, they have formed themselves so to terminate, or as a&f 
tleir forms rose spontaneously against the resistance. A spi- 
ral form of decoration is appropriate for ties and tierods, 
and longitudinal stripes for supports and struts, and connect- 
ed terminations have functions similar to those of the human 
head, foot and hand, since these are opposing and fixing mem- 
bers. | 

72. Limits of surfaces are to be so formed, that the materi- 
al may appear self-limited on its edges, or shade off freely 
towards the centers of openings, or be enclosed by bounding 
forms of all kinds. Divisions of surfaces require different 
forms of borders and of adjacent parts, expressing the alter- 
nation of the two portions. 

2. Transitional Forms. | 

73. Intermediate forms transform one cross section or direc- 
tion into another. ' 

74. Arrangements of forms indicate separated yet re-connect- 
ed parts, and may personify the strength of the connection, 
the new relations of both parts to each other, of one part to 
the other, or of neither part to the other; they can indicate 
preliminary or terminal, completing or free terminal forms, or 
direction in general. 

75. With convexity and concavity are associated the repres- 
entation of repulsion, aversion and exclusion, on the one hand, 
on the other, those of admission and reception; the first ser- 
ve well as bearing, the latter for changing and terminal forms. 

76. The divisions will be conceived to be necking and footing, 
as well as connecting members, in the sense of the decoration 
of the human body. 

77. Separate divisions of groups of members are separated by 
fillets, coves, rounds and small mouldings. 

b. Decorative Forms. 

78. The highest application of ornamental forms is, like that 
of relative forms, to represent the material as if animated, 
i.e., when the external form corresponds to the purpose subser- 
ved. The simplest application is to render a unity or a single 


en er nofdsotigae lil A .tnenimo1g s10m Jniog 
rodue sms toldw Gevukeg bepubrse {I feoravoueys Yo noise 
rc Lees Se oS gatoy eftate » of 

. otrtmso & of bafbaogse1169 ensot {stnemeni0 .Ct 
e selbity: Bhatt .psoe!ioen .edtee ™ to wr0t sit sist 
“ edt bnoqeer109 snemegnetis OitIaeOxS ott oF (eve! 
18 yi isolassaaye eeecen bas etswolt to aedonaid in 
qi 1%  gbetneoos Rated enottostib niet1e9 .auoot © igo 

/9%s emtot [atnemanto Io go073 Potd? & .O8 
pening werent nisd1s9 & anfsiisiosiedo tot 
-tasatmomg shaq eis eno 

-enortroyors .VI soitose 

te bua sizow nanwd [fe to efeoe To tinny edt of 
ne Lapa 0 ehoeqgeb eaam sit tod ,tisantd nee ei ecinosos}T 
10. ) edt Th edu edt #8 gatessiont .letisdem odd to 
‘ “p : sanortoetib ssidt sk sece1 

y eotnotoe’? ar enotenemid to etiutl oldieeimieg oat .S 
| fee oo i cr disehatal 63 wort tostdo edt to sonateéd sad no 

at 24) enotgeroloD .V nolioed 

nti xin sit segtd ,noifey 585 ete erofoo elgure edt of 
: ) eve shaeto bane wolley, bet ;telotv ,Sineto .ne9aTs ote | 
stnemslqmod setofoo evisesy ots tefotv bua enld .neesh 
anette TOlOD .avesisnoo bedase Jeon s4% eovhborg eto 
Meonentnodety sit of Ratbyoo0e weulav olveiies Jaaretiib 
)dotde dsiw anoktstnsee1ge: edt of ,s10foo evieseq 19 evi? 
bas ytiensint ,seensdgiand eds Des bevetoorss ste 
[tot yRnorte yes zoinososT ni snoitstaseerges .somaszoy 
te eStod besorisest ston sw of eo 3niifegaoo .noiteroloc 
de Nai sia iy —e —— od gniviise cetsetaoe 
-Stolcdpased? tI0 

‘Fesitnol btbabiite \bIOR bas tevire ,e¢itx bas ioafG .S 
-pesnd drag to sevpeab odd yirbom edinw fas doeid set0loo 
dnt atoleo neented booelg Tete ,cotsathsr1t yt eroloo - 
bast sostise sid isyo beldatyges t4 fue  atesidn0o sesas 
[oo Gat seezerggos tod .nottszoloo edt of i9d0e1K8d0 Syit 
x8 sd ylno as5 aids Jey ,eomershbmogery asi yd Jostits 
' -@9aete anoftoétg Sat to yalq bna mast out 


~ 
‘ 


15 
point more prominent. A second application is the characteriz-— 
ation of symmetrically arranged points, which are subo:1dinate 
to a single point. 

79. Ornamental forms corresponding to a centric arrangement 
take the form of wreaths, necklaces, rings, girdles and brace- 
lets; to the excentric arrangement correspond the palm orname- 
nt, branches of flowers and masses symmetrically arranged ab-— 
out a focus, certain directions being accented. 

80. A third group or ornamental forms are continuous motives 
for characterizing a certain direction, whereby other directi- 
ons are made prominent. | 

Section IV. Proportions. 

1. The unit of scale of all human works and structures in 
Tectonics is man himself, but the mass depends on the weight 
of the material, increasing as the cube if the dimensions inc- 
rease in three directions. 

2. The permissible limits of dimensions in Tectonics depend 
on the dgstance of the object from the observer. 

Section V. Coloration. 

1. The simple colors are red, yellow, blue; the mixed colors 
are green, orange, violet; red,yellow and orange are active, 
green, blue and violet are passive colors. Complementary col- 
ors produce the most marked contrasts. Color arrangements have 
different esthetic values according to the predominance of ac- 
tive or passive colors, to the representations with which they 
are associated and the brightness, intensity and specific im- 
portance. Representations in Tectonics may strongly influence 
coloration, compelling us to a more restricted choite of pig- 
mentsthen striving to attain harmony, preferably by shading 
off theseycolors. 

2. Black and white, silver and gold, strongly contrast with 
colors; black and white modify the degree of brightness of 
colors by irradiation; metal placed between colors intensifies 
these contrasts, and if sprinkled over the surface lends a fes- 
tive character to the coloration, but suppresses the color 
effect by its preponderance, yet this can only be excelled by 
the gleam and play of the precious stones. 


en a8 / MOTPOUIOATUT 
1 oat to sonsioe sid jnaes at a ES 5 ce 

eastern, ont atin somsbr0o98 af antot fergdosdinons 
: _ e(gottensel petiggA) eosaod 
“th aa gn ahh Opa we neldory eds at gothlind eat 
7 L otfdog 10% ,moitetidsy & to aogoq79g seievib team sit 
ah) -Jidetow ewolgtie: sot as [lox aa ,aoildmonaa bre, 
#f 19b30 ak Ler9ne% 9d9 of Istoega sid nox} azey ow eonts 


id 


> Se nit [Lede on tostdue edt to gntbastessbas as oiaddo 
‘ uB, tion: t gniblied edt txen ~anibitud edt io ef78q edd wav 
aati to to uatonelg edd bas egatbhirad to gmiquory edt ylsael 
~ ‘poentt of eysnls ai aenzeq 3ntnolfot edt nt aziaab w0 
18 ; hacen dotdw-,mefdorg [stoaqa & at svidom edt 
-tasudeort oldest 
 ed¢ esiay0081 of eatfiiw een 9” <T9gmed atiw Al. 
) me ait birt tigim on ,gntrevoo Lantetxe sat oi eotmatoet 
Wine heaese foidn ,isvetsdy sntrevoo evitesoosh yna ai 
© [se7 on anived tud ,abaoorg lewistxs ao eaoyauy edd 
i neat bfoow [fan A .tostde sd% to oxpten [antetar edd atin 
a 
aoe @eit{ .soeqe to notdtog s to etnaolons edt yieiw 
-Ientedxe eas stiw SoNBbI0II# nk fos ,Jam Io ated igo, 
—feanee yas at betoud anos: ad ddgim Ilan aad .medeye 
| 30 batd yas yd Bevevoo sd of viereo guriiapat yoo 
5 beasese 10 peviae ~bedaieq ed tdyio fo kaw. NO .BAteeo0S 
By a . stnistiag yidesgaed bett 
re ths Anes eetentmobeng esi{qioniig 3nitesvoo sat seas gatiaa> 
od beta Tequen 28 ,Jeeq odd to aelyte Ietatasdidors ieilises 
aa sd bluow tt tedt soosbive on esdetmwi eid? .avorg 
gni¢rets odd es mottouttenoo eat ekat of Tdanoad 94a 
(947 dtin esonemmo> etsdoedriorsA woot L[ewwtowtte ott 


‘ oe ‘ee ,oomeH .bitod of antewet Batddon nedw agole das moss 
* 


% iu 


shed 
i 


1 


editors siz sviteh of Jqmetta bas sers0o Wado Ssdi soaring 
mitenog atifuret 160 tI .mottouwisanod eat mort sviton {ar 
dnesno0o mao on ,YIOSdt 1edto adt to sont Adie Jor Dinos 
ne yroed? miot sds of Sastenhse odd tadt .,siat atin aevia 
Gas ;enoterugaibh a0 nt eolsv hegbelmomios to Raidtemoa batt 
yigemoo to afqioning edd bemoses visasopeting ton IESE ti 
 smid ddim br0o08 ret of [isde ow ,datog 2nitiess a se cot 
_feotnaoet edt mort Joetdue ao bagget ayant Iiede ex 


ee 
i 


16 
INTRODUCTION. 

By Architectonics is meant the science of the treatment of 
architectural forms in accordance with the principles of Tec- 
tonics (Applied Esthetics). 

The building is the problem in architecture, and it serves 
the most diverse purposes of a habitation, for public life 
and assemblies, as well as for religious worship. 

Since we pass from the special to the general in order to 
obtain an understanding of the subject, we shall first dis- 
cuss the parts of the building, next the building itself,and 
lastly the grouping of buildings and the planning of cities. 

Our design in the following pages is always to trace out 
the motive in a special problem, which offerssitself for art- 
istic treatment. 

If with Semper, we were willing to recognize the problem of 
Tectonics in the external coverins, we might envelop an object 
in any decorative covering whatever, which seemed suitable for 
the puspose on external grounds, but having no real connection 
with the internal nature of the object. A wall would then be 
merely the enclosure of a portion of space, like a suspended 
curtain or mat, and in accordance with the external covering 
system, the wall might be constructed in any manner ahatever, 
only requiring merely to be covered by any kind of protective 
coating, on which might be painted, carved or stamped ang des- 
ired tapestry patterns. 

Granting that the covering principle predominates in the 
earlier architectural styles of the past, as Semper tried to 
prove, this furnishes no evidence that it would be an inartis- 
tic thought to take the construction as the starting point for 
the structural form. Architecture commences with the construc- 
tion and stops when nothing remains to build. Hence, we shall 
pursue the other course and attempt to derive the architectu- 
ral motive from the construction. If our results sometimes 
conflict with those of the other theory, we can content ours- 
elves with this, that the adherent to the form theory may also 
find something of acknowledged value in our discussions; and 
if Semper not infrequently assumed the principle of construct- 
ion as a starting point, we shall so far accord with hin. 

We shall always regard our subject from the technical, hist- 


: 
: 


Teper es  Jeoke: vs subdeuloeeses: eal dideveoete 
| edd wterit os beiset? 64 of sorqost {stooge eat 

2 atten gnissed bas anteclone-soaze .Ratblisd 5 to edaeq 
three opp ats bedoateh rtent bes ern 


x a ve Go" OS° Seeer bas .astiote to 
‘,eioin capreray fatinsed 818 eeisdonise feiwtostinosA 
tip ee ee 8°!) Senoktenkdmoo atest bas .isten — 


eye. find %6 antquotD ,eeeoqswy avotter tot egatbl ied 
Snibfind eeentaed tot enel .ytio a to etsisanp 10 etoold 
cel salevizee? bas ereeeereee isin Bazbas ,pattoessods 
a ' | enolfot sa ek samatkord 100 
e@{iian Satsolone-soage “ 
- \eEtmOsem emote «I 
 eetnogam FOI .S 
eaniveteslg sasms0 [aaistxg .f 
eatiaw neboowW ob 
-silew betedait-tieh .¢ 
eGnnkite> .2 
-amsed snote 20 .f 
88890 ‘“eboow TO .S 
satan tt kee notk {[afaoztaioh .& 
-fott 10 hoor to geseutt sfitery 5 
| eatioey S & 
| eat10ga08 .9 ich 
Se ee véndmnfod st} 
AG WER ‘° ,erelitq so e19f7 VS 
 ehOotk 0 hoon ,snota to seinteldatai .£ 
oHORhInd enote jasheodd yb 
sWoatersiu? gntglt bis sseasttsgs 22° 
| elfen mF euyretnegd od. 
Ww , Pee 4 Pa iv sewobnre si 
- Sencbaty Isedy .¢' 
N aBIOod | See” 
) v' PRS pedeted iB | 
ane. r; “setenaut Yo ites 109 32" ce. 
Se dtoort a ; 
boon 10 ledtes Me labcdcctae ‘She ds 
Sa 2) fetare oaesetoretoett 4" 
TE 8 Lo gett 20 axoted tetesdont: er wy 


a OR ee a 


17 
historical and esthetic point of vier. 

The special topics to be treated are first, the essential p 
parts of a building, space-enclosing and bearing walls, ceili- 
ngs and their detached supports, floors, openings, sconnection 
of stories, and roofs. 

Architectural structures are executed in stone, bricks, Beso 
metal, and their combinations. 

Buildings for warious purposes, Crouping of buildings in bl 
blocks or quarters of a city, Plans for business buildings and 
accessories, ending with Becorations for festivals. 

Our programme is as follows. 

A. Space-enclosing walls. 
1. Stone masonry. 
2. Brick masonry. 
3, Bxternal cement plastering. 
4. Wooden walls. 
5. Half-timbered walls. 
B. Ceilings. 
1. Of stone beams. 
2. Of wooden beams. 
3. Horizontal iron ceilings. 
A. Visible trusses of wood or iron. 
5. Vaults. 
C. Supports. 
1. Columns. 
2, Piers or pillars. 
3, Entablatures of stone, wood or iron. 
4, Arcades; stone bridges. 
5. Buttresses and flying buttresses. 
D. Openings in walls. 
1. Windows. 
2. Wheel windows. 
3. Doors. 
4, Gates. 
5. Portals of tunnels. 
Ee Floors. 
1. Pawements of stone or wood. 
2. Floors of stone slabs. 
3. Floors of bricks or tiles. 


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4. Mosaic floors. 
5. Floors of cement. 


F. Buildings in several stories. 


1. Height and character 6f stories. 

2. Bases, string courses and cornices. 

3. Stories not separated by horizontal divisions. 

4. Galleries, balconies, bay windows, pedestal cour- 
ses, corbelled constructions, spandrels, balust-— 
rades. 

5. Stairs. 

6. Towers. (Also bridge towers). 


G. Hoofs. 


1. 


1. Batter of walls. 
2. Forms of roofs. 

3. covering of roofs. 
4, Dormers. 

5. Ridge turrets. 

6. Chimneys. 

7, Becorations. 


. Stone. construction. 


Brick construction. 
wixed stone and brick construction. 
Wood construction. 
Mixed stone, brick and wooden construction. 
Metal construction. Iron vaults. 
Mixed stone, wood and iron construction. 
Arrangement of plan. 
Cooss section of buildings. 
facades. Facades on courts. 
Kinds of buildings. 
Plans of cities. Public squares, streets, gardens. 
Wells and fountains. 
Memorials. Seats. 
City sates. Triumphal arches. 
Bridges, ramps, canals, Basins for water. 
Lighting, lamp posts. 
Decorations for festivals. 
A. Space-enclosing walls. 
Stone masonry. 


All masonry is formed by the superposition of uncut , partis 


Py eee ee, el hee 
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,Benote fatortitas aay fateten ,beeseth yleaitne 10 
gig a to aottibbs @a% itin .atntot beexsoons 20 
10 ,#a6m99 to ‘aetqiog beef at JPp aqusxg go afsnob 
t edt <YInosem al .tedtezot bslietevod to belsgdo, od yam 
“wise ,2enote edd to baod edt ei berebseado od ot sniog 
a ‘edd teds yaw 8 wowe ni Tedtons no snote sno to Aniye! 
teaog ae test: ss sd {fade tett0m tyocsin [few sds Yo yt 

)3 P Yeqqn sdt tans 948 baod book # to elasmetinupet sant 
wt {itsensd Jxon seodt to etntio, ods tevoo eyeule [Lede 
08 at dotdx ,yinosam sit Yo soatige ([savetce edt tedt 
setot sdt to nottostoty sit tot anfasvoo « an bebre 
of yd (fen sit Yo toteetar teat ot betdosanod vinitt 
lef Ob eiedotetse to esnote tesdso odd elidw ,esnote baod 10 
tot oct [ltt of anivies yao ,[lew add otai ylgsob basixe 
aoe) 890898 

-819hInod to yanoeam eldduh .a 

V0 bat eldansb tenet mavott .feeqseno bus Teefamie 
esivtanoo at nomneo viev ei siebivod to yisoesm elddys8 
16 Basoanco at dt jytluolttib issxy-dsiw beiwisep af snote 
| edt nk beiediave to etevis to @bsd ont ak bagot eteb 
i idd00. at a6 ,ei00ld otters beaiegeth yishix eft e18 10 — 
: “qaiRewiol See deiisx? to eerdransop eliersbtancs 
13 ee [fon es ,osie saiel Yo asnidsuoes .etedd Seve 
atr08 sdt se07198 dbetroqe sets yidtedorg \,etebl[ god To 
—atedtton eat ofnt ast ssolt sor YI geiitdawoo nteataon 
S0-nevs ‘e1en erebl{yod otset19 dows .e1saa bedieogebh bea 
Yo seeesm yo sivantoaeod nisdtien mort baelloh ovni 
meds ditw bevey ef #es2¢ Afro# extsne sit 

food tifge Sa001 yldasefosd to yrmceem MRwodt ,[fr96 
tot ynent9D to nislq *eeedtion wol sat nt Sean dour 
Siv tea Snisd seostive meio edt ,eyntbifed tedel bao. 
“Selah et ytritdets [lene to yinoses Jostieqat alist 
fo sd of ellaw sdt esrinpes elddet daeo1 sid? .bnellok nt 
_ yo belltt yltasy eta esoeqatetni sd¢-ban ,seanvoids 
7 to diel sod mI statton Yo ystitnsup shies 8 basash dpc 
ia8 ,eedotudo Slo [atevee Sunol, st# atiag tnsosths bne X09 
“Yo ancts10g ton0l sit es [few ne , .yrmogementit to titud ¢f 
sm aid? .eiotad to etraq 1sq90 odt Adin (emdowddo bne et/eKod 
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or entirely dressed, natural or artificial stones, with coursed 
or uncoursed joints, with the addition of mortar or cement, d 
dowels or cramps e@t in lead, sulphur or cement, or the stones 
may be jokgled or dovetailed together. In masonry, the first 
point to be consedered is the bond of the stones, i.e., the 
laying of one stone on another in suca a way that the stabili- 
ty of the wall without mortar shall be as great as possible. ; 

The requirements of a good bond are that the upper stones 
shall always cover the joints of those next beneath; further 
that the external surface of the masonry, which is to be reg— 
arded as a covering for the protection of the interior, is . 
firmly connected to that inteeior of the wall by long headers 
or bond stones, while the other stones or stretchers do not 
extend deeply into the wall, only serving to fill the inter- 
spaces. 

ae Rubble masonry of boulders. 

Simplest and cheapest, though least durable kind of masonry. 
Rubble masonry of boulders is very common in countries where 
stone is quarried with great difficulty; it is composed of boul- 
ders found in the beds of rivers or scattered in the fields, 
or are the widely dispersed erratic blocks, as in north Cerman’y; 
considerable quantities of Swedish and Norwegian granite are 
faund there, sometimes of large size, as well as great heaps 
of boulders, probably transported across the North sea from 
northern countries by ice floes far into the northern plain 
and deposited there. Such erratic boulders were even carried 
into Holland from northern Scandinavia by masses of ice, and 
the entire North sea is paved with then. 

Still, though masonry of tolerably round split boulders was 
much used in the low northeast plain of Cermany for mediaeval 
and later buildings, the broken surfaces being set visible, 
this imperfect masonry of small stability is entirely lacking 
in Holland. This rough rupble requires the walls to be of great 
thickness, and the interspaces are partly filled by spalls, b 
but demand a lerge quantity of mortar. In the Mark of Branden- 
burk and adjacent parts are found several old churches, entife- 
ly built of this masonry, , as well as the lower portions of 
towers and churches, with the upper parts of bricks. This mas- 
onry can be somewhat strengthened and decorated by occasional 


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Tal to atelenoo y1sosem to tmemgolsveh tsasin & 
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jase pan as mwOma yinogan [enogylog sat ai Snaot ef 
9 81% to ansea yd sottowttenoo mtit gntonubo1g ,setrsens? 
eonstetxe bne stuten eff .akoold Isaogelog antdrit 
0p eBenote beatpoons 10% bedtiue yiao ef ¢£ tadd tort edt 
bai? Jneions ni beev yltnenpert eew $1 .eseeem salve ot 
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1 e¥tnoesm sit to [fat edd senso ton Hivgow eenode sios 
. to divni sonetetxe sit of notinetis beffso. ylragir . 
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to ofg Sd¢ (got? nexes eiqnexe os yd bavoiy af siserd, sit 
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t aller ont to @eneaiosgqe isdto owt 5 bas & want at drtw.S 
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eid atin t9dtep0d HedsiI aia eenote and sacs snadive 
pdeeth atin bento, foot&e to yting mtetdo oF es.o8 .a169 
peb etelgnoo add to smit edd te hetoeais mesd soiven eidt 
oq eid? eeaid Jaeoe1 prisv al .sissoevrtow stato to tae 
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ifaw ot beyolqme et bas ,yltalegsiii {ntiserd enotaear!, 
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ae aan taape ‘bas engolo§ to enoitsoitisict bas 
| mostiéasixg etydoett bas tise 
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20 
courses of bricks. (Fig. 1). But in general it is imperfect and 
is only to be regarded as permissible in exceptional circumst- 
ances, or as possessing some value for subordinate purposes, 
on account of its primitive appearance. As a covering for rail- 
way embankments, it becomes a kind of paving. 
b. Cyclopean masonry. 

A higher development of masonry consists of irregular stones, 
mostly uncut though carefully selected and roughly prepared, 
is found in the polygonal masonry knowan as Cyclopean since 
Pausanias, producing firm construction by means of the closely 
fitting polpgonal blocks. Its nature and existence depend on 
the fact that it is only suited for uncoursed stones quarried 
in irregular masses. It was frequently used in ancient times 
in Greece, Asia Minor and Italy for city walls, fortifications, 
and royal fortresses, possibly because the removal of one or 
more stones would not cause the fall of the masonry. Semper 
rigntly called attention to the existence in it of arched ton- 
struction in a latent form. The walls sometimes have 4 thick- 
ness of 26 feet, the largest blocks measuring over 9.75 ft. 

That Cyclopean masonry was even employed in the temples of 
the Creeks is proved by an example taken from the temple of 
Themis at Rhamnus, a portion of the walls being shown in Fis. 
2, with in Figs. 3 and 4 two other specimens of the walls fil- 
ling the spaces between the side walls of the vestibule; it is 
evident that the stones are fitted together with the greatest 
care, so as to obtain unity of e@fect joined with great variety, 
this having been erected at the time of the complete developm- 
ent of Doric architecture. In verr} recent times this polygonal 
masonry is executed in granite, porphyry or volcanic stones and 
limestone breaking irregularly, and is employed for walls where 
an appearance of unusual stability and primitiveness is desired, 
for example for retaining walls of terraces and slopes, as in 
the substructure of the Walhalla near Regensburg, the retaining 
walls of the Black Forest railway, and in the fortifications of 
Verona, of which a specimen is given in Fig. 5. The quay walls 
and fortifications of Gologne and other places are built of bA- 
salt and trachyte prismsifrom Siebengebirge andcaressomenhat 
similar, being composed of long prismatic blocks of polgonal 
section. 


jefe Pahiet biped) Yo vanone: [enoayfog sefLimt2 
¢ sanentenikt \rodnesabl to siteso eds nt Savot ed 
enorenomth Atvin eioold [fLeme to yrnosan Lecoyziol 
f ome base ,allage dtin bednedo bor teonn aie .3t S uni 
| mort etiioth sit gateo yroxse to agnibiiad heot edd 
besed miol nk e18 YIdcesM lanoayilog to ebnid egedt [14 
[edt oe .atnenole tsluye11t to besogmos setaye oiseon ead 
2 ai ,betooexe ylrsgorq ti fostte goreselg yew & soub 
» oteizevy tee1y Aaditw asbt Yo yrs 
Yo Heeogmoo yinoes# bsyolyme syexulé answod sat 
Otdw mort  rstsom treffeors ot bebbsd esnote [lame relic 
anosam to bail etdd to ddgmoide yienibiceitze eed bet 
‘yinosan sit to esybde bas ealyae edT “.mwdagoni ango” 
#0 Yo eioold vd 10 dvondotad yt bensdtinerte ylle 
beeoqmoo od Jozie yxnoesem L[anozylog tostaeg ytev A 
jot amitot fanodoetidowA svetetamvss) .eneibsasosbodaod1 
eth ovis bna assia ineteitth to ed tikim eaedT .(gnties 
s owited Stef espeqetedal on ativpyleadio tit of begaaaia of Ti 
0 si. ed bloow ytnogem [enoaylog to sayt {sebt eat ted .medt © 
> ont mo tedqadd eis oi adimotoel of betsdrenco, ~daerle 
8 92 dtin atnesels rwslisie to bseogmoo bas ,soaqe to 
ile mon ‘eifen to @neatoage ond odt aniaexe ow YI ~bnod. Akyir 
peid? ted? tnebive at if .eunmadd te aknedT to efgqaet 
: | pons | fotdw .etelwottisy sretsodai ows af elést yinosen 
bas M2 setinps? stoteieds bos ,etall(rq bencated of slisoslg 
ag em to bath ssdione yo bensdtgneste af oF aliew eds to 
— pito erst lig sese2o blrow esetvoo fadnosivod to dos! eat 
| $ abast YInoesm sit aa dns .Rathile xd etetaqee of ytmoKAs 
a a aa ba Ge ebed dbentioni acs no edon sannid fstnosirod @ .bIleix 
A 2 , Ro nemtoege aatesely 4 ~atasmtuds mvt yd betetees od 
ntod Utes ~eiditeeog as yisitav taetz an wode seum. yIcoRsa 
b ont od Hetqebs er efdd ;etnewele eaf to motan bapioed se 
vib oof too .atnemele eis to mot to ysiexevid eldieaog 
ie f£ ont aidtin anotememih ated’ Yo notteasinil sds eddin 
a: ie {ettetem sit to sinden edt yd bextt gaisa istast2 
: ton ffede yinoeem Lenogylog edt tadd woitibacs sat yi tee 
é Hol{it slavieint dtin exoofd egtel To beraquon sd of 
toeidce ying Joa e186 eioold sdeteges edt sonte .senc 
8 edibin atedd .noteesigmoo of es [fen 6s niette seteyv 


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Similar polygonal masonry of basalt from Vogelssgebirge is to 
be found in the castle of Minzenburs in Wetterau province. 

Polygonal masonry of small blocks with dimensions not exceed- 
ing 2 ft. are uncut and chenked with spalls, and are found in 
the road buildings of Saxony using the diorite from near Plan. 

All these kinds of polygonal masonry are in form based on t 
the mosaic system composed of irregular elements, and they pro- 
duce & very pleasing effect if properly executed, by their un- 
ity of idea with great variety. 

The Romans always employed masonry composed of wholly irreg- 
ular small stones bedded in excellent mortar, from which resul- 
ted the extraordinary strensth of this kind of masonry, the 
“opus incertum.” The angles and edges of the masonry were usu- 
ally strengthened by brickwork or by blocks of cut stone. 

A very perfect polygonal masonry might be composed of right 
rhombodecahedrons. (Baumeister. Architectural forms for Engin- 
eering). These might be of different sizes and also distorted, 
if so arranged to fit closely,with no interspaces feft between 
them. But the ideal type of polygonal masonry would be the one 
already considered in Tectonics in the Chapter on the division 
of space, and composed of similar elements with an absolutely 
rigid bond. If we examine the two specimens of walls from the 
temple of Themis at Rhamnus, it is evident that this polygonal 
masonry fails in two important particulars, which make it inap- 
plicable to detached pillars, and therefore requires the angles 
of the walls to be strengthened by another kind of masonry. 

The lack of horizontal courses would cause pillars of polygonal 
masonry to separate by sliding, and as the masonry tends to 
yield, a horizontal thrust acts on the inclined beds and must 
be resisted by firm abutments. A pleasing specimen of polygonal 
masonry must show as great variety as possible, still retaining 
a decided union of the elements; this is adapted to the richest 
possible diversity of form of the elements, not too diverse, 
with the limitation of their dimensions within two limits, the 
greater being fixed by the nature of the material, and the les- 
ser by the condition that the polygonal masonry shall not seem 
to be composed of large blocks with intervals filled by small 
ones. Since the separate blocks are not only subject to trans- 
verse strain as well as to compression, their widths should not 


bics " ee sii 

i {fatens3 ak hea Jebagied. ntedd. mort doow-ood ett 
coe haa ,s8cote anol no gelgne tnetinse: mtot ot ston 
i kebtons edt biova oele ot sobleg dud: eeleae stoo8 to 
a an OF: qolop sommoo # ts eintol semdt neds etoW 40 
ene .eio0fd Iabtoxsqatt 10 usfoinaiat to sen eden 
‘bas amxolt saedt ,edniot Lsotstev bas [sdnosiczon 
) eves er od tebro of wid eh cca ed gon bluode 
ae Sootte att 

Majin | arivpen ot si en of etasags JL 
t#ad emoe snived aflen at Seyolqme sd vino bloode ut 
goo ilat shore ondte signte s tatit treet gon yem ono 
“Moors ‘ebiyinoess [agoayfoq sonte ,{fsw eat to sos? 
ie: Ie | sTas100. 10 Insweo To san sds Toons 

ahaveidxe ae ai ginoasa, [enonylog to sost edt too of 
# dd iw sot tose Yo niztas ses bavows feo 9d yam Sterd 
i fF esexb of easleteeds ai ft tod .{seiio ySaenibio ae to 
ns > ‘Tetoitasque teom sat at madt setwrsdto sostiue et 
else Inteiso a of bavowsd ed bloode tosel siitns 
be YT wxedsea03 ylateareooa aedt haoisset of baa esnode 
 efontt. atiw bsyolaus ullenofsqeoxs et Snod Ler 
ad at er. note bedetfoq to ssoaetige bua elteteh Sersdoad 
of spb sd digtm eta) .gonwadt sa armed? to alqnad 
‘eae Yo agostios Honetiol .smoase1 [sotlodmye to 
ye bas dsgnette eviessm to ietosisi2 end of besogqo sie 
oat od eidasotlqqs sis enotéatebtenos tedd0 .esens 
am at bns sonstol®.to efesite osebom edd extt atesita 
‘oveg: © eat sonte ,ytnosem nesgoloy of nett ,em08 Yo etesrte 
ia a): » 80tseon efgmis sta ind ,eerstostte ton sta: ataen 

) ea" YIMoase to hati 4 ewsoetidow asfoset) al 
mearevuyentens eiddot Dae sseqofor) neented eferboris 
1 al ~fatnosriod ylai1eq bas [scokyloq vitxeq ate ato 
Lien” 29% e1sito ond bos ssatsoe’s mort elgmexe ms avi 
dtmt mobise dyrodd ,Qnttesistat yiev' eis dokds . Sed 
mixowqqs diiw teers snove to ebnid wel .amtt erga 
| fefiereq oved stedto ;{) -8t4 at es eafans nattaess talon 
Seedt Seu of 199079 Hew Jt 22 .BIT nt as admo saptito due abed 
me doette betiev & Aniatstdo tod etatot bas bas abed fewmden 
Soe a erebeaeapapeaate oot tuodtiw sonsiseqye silt 
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22 
differ too much from their heights. If it is generally correct 
not to form reentrant angles on long stones, and to use right 
or acute angles but seldom, to also avoid the meeting of less 
or more than three joints at a common point; to make but mode- 
rate use of triangular or trapezoidal blocks, excluding all 
horizontal and vertical joints, these forms and arrangements 
should not be neglected, in order to enhance the variety in 
its effect. 

It appears to us superfluous to require that polygonal mason 
ry should only be employed in walls having some batter, so that 
one may not fear that a single stone might fall out of the sur- 
face of the wall, since polygonal masonry is scarcely used wi- 
thout the use of cement or mortar. 

To cut the face of polygonal masonry is an extravagance, a 
draft may be cut around the margin of each face with the width 
of an ordinarty chisel, but it is tasteless to dress the enti- 
re surface otherwise than in the most superficial manner. The 
entire labor should be devoted to a careful selection of the 
stones and to fitting them accurately together. If the polygo- 
nal bond is exceptionally employed with finely wrought archi- 
tectural details and surfaces of polished stone, as in the 
temple of Themis at Rhamnus, this might be due to traditional 
or symbolical reasons. Polished surfaces of Cyclopean masonry 
are opposed to the character of massive strength and primitiv- 
eness. Other considerations are applicable to the pavements of 
streets like the modern streets of Florence and the ancient 
streets of Rome, than to Cyclopean masonry, Since these pave- 
ments are not structures, but are simple mosaics. 

Tn Grecian architecture a kind of masonry was employed int- 
ernediate between Cyclopean and rupble masonry, since the joi- 
nts are partly polygonal and partly horizontal. In Fig. 6 we 
give an example from Mantinaa anc two others after Viollet-le- 
Duc, which are very interesting, though seldom imitated at 
this time. Mant: kinds of stone break with approximately rect- 
angular reentran angles as in Fig. 7; others have parallel 
beds and oblique ends as in Pig. 8; it was proper to use these 
natural beds and end joints for obtaining a varied effect in 
the appearance without too much preparation. Engineering con- 
struction is accustomed to work on a large scale and must take 


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jesm ofddns beiaiasp ,mrot wloyet1k yllodw te esnose to. 
49 28 texi, gesipoo ni biel bes ebed tin aeaote to tftud 
_ynottareze7g ‘ebot yisv tstis to .yttenD ent mort ssioo 
ie no abaeqeb esfofa aslugem1t to yineass Yo ytriid 
son 1c 3 bie elleqe onote diiw seoitetstar tila Yo ynil lit 
4 /medssgot anrstit tosxs sdzv no ytaoeeam Jaenctyl[oa to 
i$ m0 taebnsaeb ef yrnoeam Slddur beintsen to vont cedoo!d 
eit ,ebed to noitieog [admosiiod sat .bn0d Yo ytiralyxer 
ee eetsbsed gnof to sen edd bas .etniol, Leottiev to ani 
-enotebasa beititerte mot eseiigoxggs ai yrnorsn to 
Rakes ‘a sed00% Okasofov bas ytasnsmibss yisla act ,eno 
an atatot edt :ti ai bavot ets atatot sapilso 10 eegbe x0 
an edd? baa astion atte Hallkt ylreqoug #6 stoteredt 
betiesd sd sostiues m1otiag bas atoouea a-ti (tk yd bere 
8 10 Aowlotsd dtiw benedtaneate 94 seam esybe bas sel 
ee wasqqs o¢ sis yadd Yh .2 -227% mi es ,yincass 
gh at. tnersioo ylanoite sd of bas dont 
o84 edd .yiaonsa beatsco st ole bnalenosylog nt eA 
(@k ekds saccns .gntden19 od soaiioe yino ote ean 
[fe tin yinesan sxoensgoues ylertiae to ylno swsd 
a dtzqel) eft.,saote s to sintoert 1 ees tnsveg of sLstao 
iad A ahaae hie) -tdzied edi eentt 2 ot £€ bseoxs gon 
t yetebliod [evesiben eit medt sedis bas ,enewod oa7 
‘edd sot mutsotge eag0 40 bod emodantired end gnfen to 
ae 
lal halal bapis0o yisnibro to dLiodyellew to ssostise 
Moi gts #q .ehed sevt1 mort ylsisy eenose to beeoquoo at (OL 
dal- wort beyolgwe aaw Ji bos ,edotad 10 eenote bsit EN) 
; | .ewtneo ds AL edt nt Lttnw boiisq news 
- enodgniarsed to ebatd tneretttb ent sotnexes [fin al 
tom ai baod edt Yo ysilidete eat some .d10wioiad to 
TREN 8 a tefivast ¢s besely exis edortd to esetwoo [etmositod 
1 alien edt to Zatost edt mi bowot et IL .BtH mk ofgaexs edT 
a, etaeo At edt ni sndreY Yo oitpbosd? yd betoess annevsl to 
. @d2 go1t sedst aonots to tited ef yimoeam eds 7.0.4 Ye 
| edt paired saiotid to aeasooo détw bexia ,syibA asvis oct 


: sods 


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(es on 


1m, batt 


23 
economy into account, may perhaps make use of such bonds with 
advantage. 
c. Rubble masonry of quarried stones. 

While the kind of rubble masonry just described was composed 
of stones of wholly irregular form, quarried rubble masonry is 
built of stones with beds and laid in courses just as they 
come from the quarry, or after very rude preparation. The sta- 
bility of masonry of irregular stones depends on the careful 
filling of all interstices with stone spalls and good mortar; 
of polygonal masonry on the exact fitting together of many 
blocks; that of quarried rubble masonry is dependent on the 
regularity of bond, the horizontal position of beds, the break- 
ing of vertical joints, and the use of long headers. This kind 
of masonry is appropriate for stratified sandstone and limest- 
one, for slaty sedimentary and volcanic rocks. No acute angles 
or edges or oblique joints are found in it; the joints must 
therefore be properly filled with mortar and the wall be cov- 
ered by it, if-a smootn and uniform surface be desired; the an- 
gles and edges must be strengthened with brickwork or ashlar 
masonry, aS in Fis. 9, if they are to appear sharp and dist- 
inct and to be strongly coherent. 

As in polygonaland also in coursed masonry, the separate sto- 
nes are only subject to crushing, though this is absolutely t 
true only of entirely homogeneous masonry with all beds horiz- 
ontal. To prevent the:fracture of a stone, its length should 
not exceed 3 to 5 times its height. 

The Romans, and after them the mediaeval builders, were fond 
of using the herringbone bond or opus spicatum for the external 
surfaces of walls,built of ordinary coursed masonry. This (Fig. 
10) is composed of stones partly from river beds, partly of q 
quarried stones or bricks, and it was employed from the late 
Roman period until in the 14 th century. 

we will examine the different kinds of herringbone masonry 
of brickwork. Since the stability of the bond is not great, 
horizontal courses of bricks are placed at regular heights. 

The example in Fig. 11 is found in the facing of the walls 

of Ravenna erected by Theoderic of Verona in the 6 th cent- 
ury A.D.; the masonry is built of stones taken from the bed of 
the river Adige, mixed with courses of bricks. During the med- 


ae | ae ayy, sca Meh etch 
Eiaptlvenets at nomnoo Baw nay aris. boinsq Isveaiber 
iF oh ceodedeto. at benot ylismoiascoo ef $k Dae .atdaiod 
9, ni sidtarnedoH to sléeso ead az olgnaxe ne 
i eb been et snote befataup yloo doidw of , (Si 
st. edt of dt Of edt mort Havot ere eelguexs 19430 
ie cs tited sbivt to ytto sdt to eflew ead ak aeirto 
r on ,esidto tedjo ai 2s [few aa grade 188 bas gyodeneze8 
gntused aidt .yawtneo dt SI sat madd tatel ste doide 
eid of ee notfowsisengo dota afk bsyolgqws yool ser 
Boel ts sso dm +B mort ef Gf .afT -moteoiga anyjo 
ted aelia i eat to. atnemzett ,edpisVY sort ei dL 
BAK > ; -tattel edd at 
bherrsps1 Maury ytsorem to mrot aidt oi selane saT 
fet od. dd iw sanioup dormd t0, etelies. yi bensdshneise 
De tase tee13 to moteesigat edt tedten seopbow IT 
mee | efdamneste tee1g to tedd nadd agatbsle 
yabed felisisq déiy essota bsiviesp to ean ant ye 
yliseatbr0 esods of aokditbds nt aidteaey ete abaad to 
Nga Sas gexe albbin ed? gaineh been een dotdy bae 
youd Rokasetoal to eunsen siquie 6 3nied es Sebesmnoo 
dius betaasep of iste on ,yrmoase ode to aonstasggs 
joeem stad ends siif setagied tnemwstirh to eszwoo adie 
SP eng0fo). te moors) .2 to dorsdo ett to enokti0g ssoda 
tedos og3 at ee [iow ee ,ytmtaso dt If sat ania 
ape @f .ahiT) .BYAL ak oozed seegeie” to elteso eat 
2 ot ,aaottibseo Ieool of Ssikue ots ytmoeem to abata 
ons yeas Motdw of astoqinyg edt oc Sas .eidanietdo elai 
bs yolgus ytaossen siddet bsinrsep koitsett Yo ebom-s 
a, 2938 ofbbim yltee edt at batestict bas soriog oagonr 
fepemti diin senose to 220 eds to etstanco Ji psted sotdcen 
mii euooostut exif sintet Smee anté teyodtin brea sbed 
est "ee of 38 of tHttom diiw bell{it ten etoiot Aoiad 
mk bee sc fetal gated staitot bas wsloxes .ddoone bas nave 
shan ak yrnosem to nix. aiaT (fl .Bit) redxom sioe 
¢ Ons sereerts0t <aenotado: to ellaw edt ak yautaso da Si 
Otv edt ai been {lite ei tt bas ,enotteoktitiot to elf | 
euantaand qlaommeo ers eXoot otnsolov yine stedw .xueavel 
ae een6 efbbia eft to ytnosam s{5d01 cetizecp sdz tI 
bas berstestg atod mevwetaean adi te eteidas it ‘bereda 


bed 7 


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24 
mediaeval period this bond was common in the castles of the 
knights, and it is occasionally found in churches; we have. 
an example in the castle of Hohenrathia in Craubunten (Fig. 
12), in which only quarried stone is used. } 

Other examples are found from the 10 th to the i2 th cent- 
uries in the walls of the city of Fulda built in 1166, in 
Regensburg and Wurzburg as well as in other cities, none of 
nhich are later than the 12 th century. This herringbone bond 
was long employed in brick construction as in the mediaeval 
opus spicatum. Fig. 13 is from S. Ambrose at Milan and Fig. 

14 is from Verpna, fragments of cylindrical tiles being used 
in the latter. 

The angles in this form of masonry always required to be 
strengthened by ashlars or brick quoins,with horizontal beds. 
Tt produces rather the impression of great stability against 
sliding than that of great strength. 

By the use of quarried stones with parallel beds, some kinds 
of bonds are possible in addition to those ordinarily employed, 
and which were used during the middle ages and may still be re- 
commended as being a simple means of increasing the variety in 
appearance of the masonry; we refer to quarried rubble masonry 
with courses of different heights, like the tufa masonry of t 
those portions of the church of S. Cereon at Cologne erected 
during the 11 th century, as well as in the substructure of 
the castle of “eissen begun in 1478. (Figs. 15, 16). All these 
kinds of masonry are suited to local conditions, to the mater- 
ials obtainable, and to the purposes to which they were applied. 

4 mode of treating quarried rubble masonry employed in the 
Roman period, and imitated in the early middle ages, deserves 
mention here; it consists of the use of stones with irregular 
beds and without true end joints like tufaceous limestone;Very 
thick joints were filled with mortar so as to make the masonry 
even and smooth, regular end joints being later incised in the 
soft mortar (Fig. 17). This kind of masonry is found until the - 
142 th century in the walls of churches, fortresses and the wa- 
lls of fortifications, and it is still used in the vicinity of 
Byreux, where only volcanic rocks are commonly employed. 

If the quarries rubble masonry of the middle ages was strens- 
thened. by ashlars at its angles in both plastered and unplast- 


i aster on ‘Yevad ot Igne0 Baw tt wetlan if tosh orci 
ater took nate ifen off Sas akoold saeds msevdad 
ymnorss “add of tefosteds “Supketmsog 8 esvig eiaT (Si 
Me epatel ios badoiritenco yf{sothonoss [fs af Inguos es 
deort otnotoeT bas sfqute & aatntedde to ansen xf 
| stourgenco bas bedtem efdd bonobreds Te1it soneeeren 
| to shen [fa .addold ‘aeides Yovest1s2 1slw3e1 yrsv & Yo 
-ebatd saodd bas seegoloy?) 3aretiqroo ,ytnoresn tal 
. aia te tetoetads est ised .yinoesd tAddas of nottrenens 
fen bas cenol edt yymomeoe bas ytteseoen ,vasneross 
gomw yidanot of ea Iiaw es ment of betiqqe syebliad 
aottonisers a ee ,farot 10 dettocd .“obtent” exist odd 
q st6m Sad to vidoenm bsneeth ylottome bas te{uze7 edd 
iJ od yao Statrqoiqeat sevewol .#ertio Yo ezarbiiad 
d nettoe of .eeno tatted wh beosiqet vitesse gon sce yond 
je" “qd yisoess sapestetsia tod antmoeasnn eknt to toot 
2 iidtide; ee mits e2 meds anittem redtte .einmtot ant ani 
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sd Boos B sitopst yInoesen edd to aeitias(nzer1t sat .8iyte 
Yo sonsbive es eldieltv sd taun bsd sidt bee .rettom 
f et afstot edt edenibrodue of .yinoeam sat to wisht 
ge nt yyetrev mfetzeo 8s antavosa to anesm ylao add agin 
ti pee fon .tdgooe sd teva ytinU .tnco Sa813 oof teonsiw 95 
tere v getter tnes sfaroning sat nt fod ,sonassegqa to uta 
bap f nose of er dton sdt ecolng teeqz7s feaom dotan one 
> cof yletenotroton esitifeno .Asen das tsfoatens In 
ply ons ot revecene bas toetidows nishbom edt yo bereterq 
eh ) sanoite Soe Letsten .eopest 
; “ - ,eenots [feaa to ytnoass tefiea ob 
BE asontvory emod Ife at tommoo nottonztanoo to sbom A 
Yo bermogmoo eller no mottetantome to batd 2 ATW 
ty toe Bracpe eotont VY of 8 ylotst 10} of £ esnote [Abin 
Petes oR) aetioa to taco Astds yrev & at atntot nextord 
Ape ‘yd elevistns te betgortetat at dion sib etal 
eC matt aioeqde st yinoesm sid? .[fen odt af bebmod ylyssh edo 
6 fle’ ode bevivena bool tf tod ,agntbitud namof-ol{s> at som 
| +h © ‘nwonk yino sit :sonax% [axtneo nt strqns memos ent 
: it Sdt bas omgolo? ts menos ene!) edd ote yeom1s9 m1 31 


<a 
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25 

unplasterad walls, it was usual to have no vertical end joints 
between these blocks ané the wall, but. irreguler ones. (Fig. 
18). This gives a picturesque character to the masonry, which | 
is sought in all economically constructed buildings as the on- 
ly means of obtaining a simple and Tectonic treatment. The Re- 
naissance first abandoned this method and constructed masonry 
of a very regular series"of ashlar blocks. All kinds of irregu- 
lar masonry, comprising Cyclopean and those kinds forming the 
transition to ashtar masonry, bear the character of unpreten- 
tiousness, necessity and economy; the Roman and-Renaissance 
builders applied to them as well as to roughly wrought ashlars 
the terms “rustic”, boorish or rural, as a distinction from t 
the regular and smotthly dressed masonry of the more prominent 
buildings of cities. However inappropriate may be these terns, 
they are not easily replaced by better ones. To soften the ef- 
fect of this unassuming but picturesque masonry by represent- 
ing the joints, either making them as thin as rossible or by 
giving the mortar the color of the stone, is the error of a 
narrow-minded pedant, never adopted in any good architectural 
style. The irregularities of the masonry require a good bed of 
mortar, and this bed must be visible as evidence of the durab- 
ility of the masonry. To subordinate the joints is to dispense 
with the only means of securing 4a certain variety in appearan- 
ce without too great cost. Unity must be sought, not in unifor- 
mity of appearance, but in the principle controling variety, 
and which must appear‘unless the work is to seem insipid, with- 
out character and weak, qualities unfortunately too commonly 
preferred by the modern architect and engineer to the pictu- 
resque, natural and strong. 

ad. Ashlar masonry of small stones. 

4 mode of construction common in all Roman provinces is die 
work, a kind of incrustation on walls, composed of small pyra- 
midal stones 3 to 4 or rarely 6 to 7 inches square set with b 
broken joints in a very thick coat of mortar (Fig.°19)% 

This die work is interrupted at antervals by courses of bri- 
cks deeply bonded in the wall. This masonry is especially com- 
mon in Callo-Roman buildings, but it long survived the fall of 
the Roman empire in central France; the only known examples of 
it in Cermany are the Clara tower at Cologne and the imperial 


De -gever? ta-s0aley 

| et nots{noites e070 1 10 ‘fronten asao# sat 
it to eloold, [sbimery9 te berogmoo ef baa Aton 
7 2 mont doifw to aemtoeqe s ,(O8 .st7) srsure 
0 yilstoeqs. eteiton sib eft bas. daowten soT .IS 23% 
ial es8 ysdT -Y1s088m @tesonos aatost tot sbaod 
(bteoise 3atveg mot Rnifqeoxs eamit st289 

| ted iy satager bos [Lama to bezognod yisosst to bata 4 
[seo feremes at een ,etatol doids déin esnose gnoido tuo 
Qatveq delfso-ce atdt jyassieD bas soastl of ansmof odd 
bee astotouite Laveetben at been doom oele esr Yano 
sefem Sazuomm yiees yatiatnict estrtns0s at Herr9%97] 
) enotabase batszeiney edt bas stod fentinote oft sist 
Pai. e2eonrvortq ening seqqge Sas sibbin 
Be _-eenote enzel to beeogmod yvynoesm TeineA .9 

t. bas bavottnen od Jxeo {liv r9qgo1q ytsosem relied 
He7e9933 to sbom :eysn seidd ni detadtanco 93 of ast 
pee: bates? to éosom sav bas .bnod edt ,penote sdf 
Li stontesod atsiies 

-gntageb to sboll oa 

» sseenen tin betuienp 218 snote to edvold aft tI 
2 gotenemth maot of TdzooOtwW sts YesT ,eandeorn To not 
glossmixorags dttw snoranmemid Sedrisessg to exoold 
ak ns toods iniveel! ,nevery bas dyvog [Itte ,esostque re 
ae fevs. dns exit 8 nissio of abe tose no Yto tno sd 
04 nob al gnteastb temrt sdf “.domt gniitow” ballso-os 
3 a baa ssinod wof s mo bial at aoold eds STSin .YITEUD 
e : a {ss .3tT)s befe s ditte Yo bedooml ets anottoator 
{fered gatwode dotq {sete 4 atin beteetd asdt ste so5e 
8 gad sxe saT .5seg nett et o jnfog Yo exe 9aT env 
wn dopite at tatog sft .ebned otod dttw been et bre ol 
dinst3, gatiteo at temmed edt otiw to .b tailen nsboow 

J bicons sostius ent ,Sstel[qaoo si anigntog sat ody 
f to bial aeit ex got sil .enottoesth fs ni sox ylides 
§ ett Yo pnoitoeio1g bas ,Afsdo bet dtin sqece seloges - 
sat eondofe edy dtin to bedoond exe senil seeds baoy 
joa doo os? sig Spxtror JdgootK, sdt of telootbssgys7 eek 
segt gried seostise redto ed? ,91sops. odd d3in be 
> 9d at srote. ea? .261%090 xiedd bisnod asabs [Hiedt 


yt ia oT 


wie 


26 

palace at Treves. 

‘The Roman network or opus reticulatum is allied to this die 
work and is composed of pyramidal blocks of tufa, 3.5 to 5 insw 
square (Fig. 20), a specimen of which from Pompeii is given in 
Fig. 21. The network and the die workare specially ornamental 
bonds for facing concrete masonry. They are seldom used in re- 
cent times excepting for paving streets. 

A kind of masonry composed of small and regular, but rudely 
cut oblong stones with thick joints, was in general use by 
the Romans in France and Germany; this so-called paving mas- 
onry was also much used in mediaeval structures and is still 
preferred in countries furnishing easily wrought materials, 
like the Brohlthal tufa and the variegated sandstone of the 
middle and upper Rhine provinces. 

e. Ashlar masonry composed of large stones. 

Ashlar masonry proper will next be mentioned, and it requi- 
res to be considered in three ways; mode of preparation of 
the stones, the bond, and the means of fixind and clamping the 
ashlars together. 

a. Mode of dressings. 

If the blocks of stone are quarried with powder, fire, or a 
ron of wedges, they are wrought to form dimension stones,i.é., 
blocks of prescribed dimensions with approximately rectangul- 
ar surfaces, still rough and uneven, leaving about an inch to 
be cut off on each Sade to obtain a true and even surface, the 
so-called “working inch.” The first dressing is done at the 
quarry, where the block is laid on a low bunker and the larger 
projections are knocked off with a sledge “ (Pig. 22). The surf- 
aces are then dressed with a steel pick showing parallel stro- 
kes. The axe or point c is then used. The axe has a long hand- 
le and is used with both hands. The point is struch with the 
wooden malleé d, or with the hammer in cutting sranite. 

When the pointing is completed, the surface should be toler- 
ably true in all directions. The top is then laid off in rect- 
angular shape with red chalk, and projections of the edges be- 
yond these lines are knocked off with the sledge. The four ed- 
ges perpendicular to the wrought surface are then cut and tri- 
ed with the square, the other surfaces being then dressed from 
theif’ edges toward their centres. The stone is then called a 


i Lal at Ware 3) eae orsides betatoq 10 ddvo% 
t Rntseetb at eneties galttnd si ves00%q baooee ont 
08 6 Safed ,fellay baa Ieetd> sit attx eost ext to 
. t edt weekotte. leffeteg enkt agin eehbs edt anole tte 
“bstntog Ylstea af? .soat edt to mfgrem edt yetwtot 
oar ator of d [febmero soit ittw beeaetbh ef soat ent: 
> ylieuas ese @isltes to eeoet sdt yin .eone1seqae 
# to seseo nt .betniog ttef 3nted efnitot baa ebed 
203 + Been ef > t9mMAd Weed edt ,.o%e ,stineye ,etineta 
oF 0 ii ifin Isete to qlerttns’ ster anted ,sosbasis eit 
eetatog lebt 
Pe vein at enotea bateesth ni aottersqo btidt aoT 
ns tntog Sad eitl baed ttef sds at bfed ,b Ieatdo shit 
Sects enrt eeouhorg etd? .teflem od? avin dontte bse 
en dete eta efiethb sit ylno samttene? .apetice 
| 2 tent? yd snob at waltiag to satdtoons estitemy oat 
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“bee ants tab ~ehivatog ,inittemmed dz001 eis [atedsd 
exniddet baa sintisetdo gail 
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fmaot, Sos bus ebed oft Sant tnebtve st tI .ssont xteds to 
Is qlataiobom aif os antt wihtnetort toe bstatoy sj tapgm 
; ad 10m ista cot to san sat uni’tove aot? ,sedto wore 
e teolynts edt ef seidte sit to miyvem betterb & 
od sus Fessl edt wet bone ,tostte [enmtescs mitatdo of gar 
OY Sidatine tnomtaot sot sevisoe1 neds fenaq sat .batyeoos 
aT to ted yed5 Sat nt amie? Le1sn93 at etata eh .enote $02 
onemtests etdt ,iartstem gethltod & ee ehates tuo ao aot 
iE .bot wo Iskietan sts to serdiretinosy okttoeqe and no sbne 
en P1oTORTT yisentiqga to ytele ,[ebfomonoo att ,sivtxst 
fed? os \sonevseqie L[aniedre ar soreretttrb antiioeet 
ido edt eont® .ynteeetb to show teyotd att ead [airs 
gi etdt baa dtbeetd bexit 2 sed 2ttaib [entotan tot 
pektibor dibiw tnafanco eid? \eenote Ifsne Sag egzel 
worten oved OY wose edoofd egrsl gatiem .taldes 909 to 
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rouch or pointed ashlar. : 

The second process in cutting ashlars is dressing the edges 
of the face with the chisel and Mallet, making a so-called dr- 
aft along the edges with fine parallel strokes, the four drafts 
forming the margin of the face, The merely pointed surface of 
the face is dressed with the crandall b to produce a pointed 
appearance. Only the faces of ashlars are usually crandalled, 
beds and joints being left pointed. In case of hard stone, 
granite, syenite, etc., the bush hammer c is used instead of 
the crandacc, being made entirely of steel with 16 to 40 pyran- 
idal points. 

The third operation in dressing stone is droving with the w 
wide chisel d, held in the left hand like the point and chisel 
and struck with the mallet. This produces fine lines on the s 
surface. Sometimes only the drafts are chiselled. 

The farther smoothing of ashlar is done by finer chiseling; 
finally the stone is also well polished. 

Therefore the modes of preparing ashlars and cut stone in 
general are; rough hammering, pointins, drafting and chandal- 
ling, chiseling and rubbins. 

Trom the method of dressing stone explained here are deriy- 
ed the starting points in the treatment of ashlars, especially 
of their faces. It is evident that the beds and end joints mu 
must be pointed sufficiently fine to lie moderately close on 
each other, thus avoifing the use of too much mortar. 

A drafted margin of the arhtar is the simplest mode of cutt- 
ing to obtain external effect, and is the least that can be a 
accepted; The panel then receives the treatment suitable for 
ent stone. As stated in general terms in the Chapter of Tecton- 
ics on cut stone as a building material, this treatment dep- 
ends on the specific peculiarities of the material used, its 
texture, its conchoidal, slaty or splinsery fracture, and the 
resulting difference in external appearance, so that each mat- 
erial has its proper mode of dressing. Since the chisel used 
for marginal drafts has a fixed breadth and this is used on 1. 
large and small stones, this constant width modifies the effect 
of the ashlar, making large blocks seem to have narrow drafts 
while small stones have wide ones. The projection of the cent- 
ral panel varies according to the dimensions of the stone and 


Tee), 6 dee ee eee 
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ahd 20 nokdastort nteat sbetiggs af +t Kotde of seoqtey 
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itese od eeenta: {fin anteseth to shom reefante eto? 
ofoottedoe mk ee ,beatepet at sodal to grorooe near 
PseokTitroS  .eit0% aniseentins ,eetntogtia osizatifiteo 
“to ebon breoes sdf at. sgoattne to Battarog saT 
eetiscon’ seons dtim teattaco eisifdas no alensg dsiaieg 
28 ) Qt betiteeh ef antttoo to ebom dmessttrb a stefs 
Ulatoeres ek es? weumozem to Qatlwap teatt bne taeret 
‘ea3 II .e%rtocita & To eps ont to tasatesat sad as 
ddoetorq yignoite bas dgvo1 atin tefdes to ei gorhirud 
t yom betiniog to Satonttenco ed yen ytote t9K0l ear ,ge 
to noktosjo1q te220ef to iwstsety edt oF anibto004 
' Rattntog eat} etef so stom atedd das arsliee to 
ie betatog dted ol .ofdiesou ets yincesm to sone1s9qas wi 
Ww yaseecoen e146 entatan better .ee2esod dtiw seodt one 
evi of baad eno oct so -ets{dee- to etnfot, ods Aten 
si Eat eit bevisos7 tezel te gnived to sonstsegqs Lateney «@ 
4 at ge ed aathiss fettetb eft tI .ofdteetareg notversge7y 
Beonets ottetisepatsio sisdt seol aralites sat ,bedtiwo 
enest & tod si tsiner ont to eoetine sat gotli ene 
ab sankvoth bas aniteiog meentod avarbentetnk as 10 
aa ag seuaded Aton letesoatidors soit hebwloxs ylersiiae 
| Ife et teod sid tr beleario sto Sinode snose sad rsddis 
108 jubetnio; antt to favor titel sd nent binode ti .ton ti 40 
os re ont noitingte senotes brad ytev to sead ot gninemmad 
ao qilerosqes ,eldisatuseg yllsusy seeadtoous Yo finil 
Pet antleetio ,yliant® .enoitecitksiot has exiow anries 
teth-enit no slsiaeog noitetsq91q Yo ttati taodyrd ent 
sti sn enthzsn bertash eff ;enots Jud Jasd edt bas ese 
; e edt «yews too sxe sodotta leatdo sad aa tasqdeash 
‘Astisten bentaty-entt to saso ni ylno ,beddun mobfoe yx 
alan efetio} book 8 Rnivieoet Yo sidsqso ,1010° 
pdortde at flan edt gnteogaeo atsldea sat of tee1sa00 rl 
| ea Sad, esiretoetad> ot tasutse1s to eshom satevith tom sat 
ad? snote f0> Letnsmanto 16 Ssbfn0m 10? teat [awdten at tt 
“Bae ebatbhiuon tvo teed edt ;bebrove 9d of ets Boeeod |nivoal 
Bipiasiesen ere wort ngeedt anted edoold {s¢nameni0 


28 
purpose to which it is applied. Their projection on the ashlars 
of the massive Pitti palace in Florence are so great, than one 
may find shelter from rain beneath them. 

This simplest mode of dressings will always be satisfactory 
when economy of labor is required, as in substructure walls, - 
utilitarian structures, engineering works, fortifications, etc. 

The pointing of surfaces is the second mode of treatnent; 
vointed panels on ashlars contrast with those roughly dressed, 
‘where a different mode of cutting is desired to express a dif- 
ferent and finer quality of masonry. This is especially common 
in the treatment of the mass of a structure. If the base of a 
building is of ashlar with rough and strongly projecting boss- 
es, the lower story may be constructed of pointed ashlars. 

According to the greater or lesser projection of the bosses, 
of ashlars and their more or less fine pointing, several grades 
in appearance of masonry are possible. In both pointed ashlars 
and those with bosses, drafted margins are necessary to clearly 
mark the joints of ashlars, on the one hand to give the ashlars 
a general appearance of having at least received the minimum 
preparation permissible. If the drafted margiss be entirely 
omitted, the ashlars lose their charaeteristic element of forn. 

Grandalling the surface of the ashlar is tut a transition 
or an intermediate between pointing and droving; it should be 
entirely excluded from architectural work because not beautiful. 
Hither the stone should be chiseled if the cost is allowable; 
or if not, it should then be left rough or fine pointed. Bush 
hammering in case of very hard stones signifies the extreme 
limit of smoothness usually permissible, especially on ensin- 
eering works and fortifications. Finally, chiseling is usually : 
the highest limit of preparation possible on fine-grained sto- : 
nes and the best cut stone; The drafted margins almost entirely : 
disappear as the chisel strokes are cut away. The stone is ve- ) 
ry seldom rubbed, only in case of fine-grained material of good | 
color, capable of receiving a good folish. | 

Tn contrast to the ashlars composing the wall in which we use : 

| 
| 


the most diverse modes of treatment to characterize the masonry, 
it is natural that for moulded or ornamental cut stone the pro- 
jecting bosses are to be avoided; the best cut mouldings and 
ornamental blocks being wrought from. fine-grained materials as 


pieiialioe ei Dhanush ta sont? re motte s0% eter £ 
resis: <arsides ‘aeliate so. Seve ed aso Aton eld 
& enoas sonte ,Atow enose t59. ‘teod sat af siseqqerth 0 
ides efd mo juivee s xSen yam eno 10 .batseoilqub nob ¢ 

t of ener: at II sedoold Letnomenio 24% 103 9 
. ‘p@itete5 Lsintoetidotr no 

b donot rina. Rett dee anamod bas eXse1) sal 
f yetotontte ont to mokislquoo 19316 -BsaRod Asin vid7a9 
= i | satoemanto fae aisdmea ofet sAyvotw eis" aaagod 
os edd efqnexe sot ,betertntt tsveq stew 2gnfhiiad tanh 

+ baa ‘emoh ot muegifod Sé% to stueq ,yltoi? az adeg:s 
ae Baha sneverT te « ie 

tes ini fonstatbese tvseq mk ean antbl ind to shox erat 
ineo ad £f.0% Ag OL Sdd to etutoedinota sopsensnoe 
tos eien elisieh [aratoetifiota Jeom boa eteliee 
Bietieq fatoega ino baa ,2oRbol ‘encaen ant yd Setlqyue 
node 8 #10" edt to gwen atin enmofoo ts aistiqeo bas asaad 
| j fi tee Acted aptte dno ste" a90tm109 to etnsnenie 

A at agnkblted to enoiticg yoam ylinsupseney 
|  bmtd ‘lati edt {titan etsiquoant bearemes aatwasil 
ai » satngeM de Lenbedtao sat at: Sis 

we dmeo d# AL ot at €L mort borteq oknseD end gota) 
Me 10 ebsfe edd nk bedetaii ylorttse syenta een snote soo 
i serot gootveg s ai tee stoteisd? ean Jt bas. econ 
Funke iss Ci edt to elbbim eds asdte eretasn. sone 
se in sonshto9008 ai yen tweiivoes «4 af bodtem dnesioga sat 
S tm exbelront daeo108d & eaenaog ton Skd yads sonia cawsiv 
lets obitténsioe yasm of swo sw dotdw ,xdtoptine ofe 
oD of Sidano stew yodt siotetsd? bas ,semit mishom mi 
& nk Ratdtyieve betqeoos yeds ,seomstseqgs [la nialgxs 
# mt ti beyolame bas ,xoiwtonits tnstors ot bauot we ad 
oitatiot brs. tostreq od of Atow stolqwoonk Aninvess , yaw 
shed edt to eeisinetivosy ynem to aoiteneiqxs edt ak etad a} 
re . otidt estokofes of areasl [Ide ew arotot al .sogaee 

atte ulisinp of daa ¥lleotmoncos bilied of es1ze8b sno 11 
J,8 Yo s1stouttedue saz ot ayolyme od ,bne ntatrso: & 
saves ot 28 OR ,9789. giseasosa t200 edt yino 10 [flame 
> etieq Inatioynt stom sat ot [fide okteitas bas TaKOg 
_taetone [fe 102 seao ott cals aew aint {Stetoorde 
eto reyes & sostq of ai aid? Jertt oft .se1psontse redto — 


ty ee 


1 rion = 


re iia 


29 
a rule, for which a finer treatment is suitable; if considera- 
ble work can be saved on similar ashlars, this economy entire- 
ly disappears in the best cut stone work, since these are sel- 
dom duplicated, or one may seex a saving on the ashlars to have 
more for the ornamental blocks. It is tasteless to form bosses 
on architectural details. 

The Greeks and Romans set stones cup, a rough dressed and p 
partly with bosses» after completion of the structure, these 
bosses were wrought into members and ornaments. Hence many an- 
cient buildings were never finished; for example the temple at 
Segeste in Sicily, parts of the Coliseum in Rome and the Porta 
Nigra at Treves. 

This mode of building was in part tradibionally retained in 
Romanesque architecture of the 10 th to 13 th centuries. The 
ashlars and most architectural details were set finished as 
supplied by the masons’ lodges, and only special parts like 
bases and capitals of columns with many of the more elaborate 
ornaments of cornices were cut after being set in place. 

Consequently many portions of buildings in Romanesque have 
likewise remained incomplete until the present time. Examples 
are in the cathedral at Maintz. 

During the Gothic period from 13 th to 16 th centuries, the 
cut stone was always entirely finished in the sheds of the ma- 
sons, and it was therefore set in a perfect form, The Renaiss- 
ance masters after the middle of the 15 th century followed t 
the ancient method in a peculiar way in accordance with their 
views; since they did not possess a thorough knowledge of clas- 
sic antiquity, which we owe to many scientific investigations 
in modern times, and therefore they were unable to correctly 
explain all appearances, they accepted everything in good fai- 
th as found in ancient structures, and employed it in the same 
way, assuming incomplete work to be perfect and imitations it... 
In this is the explanation of many peculiarities of the Renais- 
gance. In future we shall learn to regognize this. 

If one desires to build economically and to quickly attain 
a certain end, he employs for the substructure of a buildings 
gmall or only the most necessary care, so as to devote all his 
power and artistic skill to the more important parts of the 
structure; this was also the case for all ancient temples and 
other structures. The first thing is to place a layer of stones 


of ab ato find ais dotdn 20 cpbekhasan toot # ac 
oe aera neve erotenemibh Atiw afoold ottnsyid 
may Yoveoan @ ot beditoes etasmunom 9aote ostoOs eis 
‘$8 9081193 slqnat eft To ase1g05 edt at bial 
efiees ef st ‘hsep gated dara .tt bf bas nol .tt 8d 
ikeise oft has beaseth dguot ted esew ebsd edt feds be 
a ‘eteta soit wt sod Qaitoe) og edt gotveel .bettert 


CrP, 


7 tt Af 


ae 


Lay 


Otetd taaq mort sgadiied sit mo bevetas ensod sa7 
| @ weoe7 anigehesq [fe to sbodism edd anttgobs abot 
19d ‘ee telnt tiedt aebeo estttnwoo [fs at gadt aio 
namod {[s ni beyolque yinoven bedaorsans sind 
sivas sat to ettey toecetts edt bar evo isk 

od 3 eLotg aitiw yineasm ald aexs efbbin edt antawd 
- stheenneae bas anortaciti¢rot at been yleven ear 
1 pe femtt $1 .emtt atdt at Sasisteng sew yinoeas ato 
ees ® St ~eonstol® Yo neoeing edt nt yrotmed ot 2f ont 
aT.2 Wie StosceIneansosn1sg edt wd hesnevat need eved of 
yyoses owen 8 ebem sen snols fnorsen tent rot tre , eases 
| a ot sham sey Sqeotte cA .oomeaseranss csoent sn2 
49 edt dtkw snote oft Bakttus to esbhom esetevtb taon 


a 
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ad frre aeetee edi to inentecis eds of erabt6 sat Yo Tedos 
we etaT eretenliy 10 enaalod thoddin nedn mevg jazath 
1 -beaderntt nd: to nottattat af tadt ,saY os betr.285 
al nedoer To Bewoqgaos neve stex aistealty bas anmuloo 
Pdens tome ne .esaeod sosttwe dtin ets{des [aortbail 
| iri <0 ae ine of sysh eidt da betatint ad «ayen 
wees . sBninses toodsin ex tote, 
weaeed atiw yisoesa asf{diex sidd to wiot Inioeqe A 
age edi fet ywwinso dt af edd to bas edt te enotteottisrot mt 
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bs ANIS .q 8 sfo¥ (ptudoeridoia'h srtennoitord ats mt 
iv to. vito edt to aller edt to tevod Steg sat sort slqmsxe 


- - URL bow @rel asewted I atonss? x9bag betoexs 


ib bellso-oe ed% betnevat efoetivotes sonaactensh act | 
TIn@ atjrvam bertte1ib 8 cede ..8.t ,ereldee belsned 

e7 sta sXoofd sat TI -Hiweryq wo! a to miot odd atin 

ot fan's oxansa tt ,femsq bnometh's beiled ef aidt 


selatq tastesi1g edt Enivomet ylorss .yitanp sd¢ ttel: 


30 

on a rocky foundation on which the building is to be erected. 
Gigantic blocks with dimensions even surpassing those of pre- 
historic stone monuments ascribed to a race of giants, were 
laid in the courses of the temple terrace at Raalbek, blocks 
68 ft. long and 14 ft. high being used; it is easily conceiv- 
ed that the beds were but rough dressed and the margins were . 
drafted, leaving the projecting boss in the state in which it 
‘left the quarry, merely removing the greatest projections.” 

The Romans entered on the heritage from past historical per- 
iods, adopting the methods of all predesging races and introdu- 
cing theg in all countries under their rule; we therefore find 
this rusticated masonry employed in all Roman structures in 
BHurope and the adjacent parts of the earth. 

During the middle ages this masonry with projecting bosses 
was merely used in fortifications and is generally rare; smo- 
oth masonry was preferred in this time. I: first reappeared in 
the 15 th century in the palaces of Florence; it was assumed 
to have been invented by the Etruscans, ancestors of the Tus- 
cans, and for that reason alone was made a special feature of 
the Tuscan Renaissance. An attempt was made to harmonize the 
most diverse modes of cutting the stone with the orders of 
columns, so as to express by means of ashlar masonry the char- 
acter of the orders in the treatment of the masses of the buil- 
dings, even when without columns or pilasters. This was finally 
carried so far, that in imitation of unfinished Roman buildings, 
columns and pilasters were even composed of rectangular or cy- 
lindrical ashlars with surface bosses, an error that should n 
never be imitated at this day. To artificially imitate the im- 
perfect is withont meaning. 

A special form of this ashlar masonry with bosses appearing 
in fortifications at the end of the 15 th century is the spher- 
ical boss, suggested by the use of artillery; Viollet-le-Duc, 
in his Dictionnaire d’Architecture, Vol. 2, p. 217, gives an 
example from the gate tower of the walls of the city of Vezelay, 
erected under Francis I between 1515 and 1547. 

The Renaissance architects invented the so-called diamond p 
paneled ashlars, i.e., when a drafted margin surrounds a toss 
with the form of a low pyramid. If the blocks are rectangular 
this is called a diamond panel, if szuare a nail-head panel. 


yates ard? to Beate! oe AS WRIT ak eves of 
brooes & tin .eelqee at sonevs @ wort yrncean 
‘brometb dtiw eisfdae Yotienieti(a to beeoqaoo. ¢f . 
‘ te tnsevorD .2 trod tlo es? mort easzod [eorredge 
A: ,metdes befensq etd to-evitow sit to solvaiiav 
‘2 | d ent tot ee [len es estetourte s98i5t1 sot bexrtspes 
bed tesoo ,.o¢9 ,senois bedati{oq to ean snd dtin ertnomn 
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opie oft eXtf sioold nistien .esecod Labimeryg 
‘4,088 ,do1s of To enoseyei sdt ,#nemunon & Yo Sead 
9 Od Fepr sno neds god ,bsblwom bua bsteest yldoty etom 
be Rsrontot Yo agrct edt ylescfs ook dosorgza oF Jon 
em to U[sert sostame ads to Inemisevd eviteroosh & 
“@t db antti0 to sebow benitet tevo Ife za Lfew oe 
Segoiqsi os oi aneon to ovntrbaeqre ne gnted es old 
S suesanio of tdhvoe er Fr doriw ts Jeoo snae ons tO 
feds Yovelyve tis sat ui setteorn to ebatd Ila adin 
gipfostidows edt deta? ylioks stom yam en ,5okn 
ou i yen on to ,teomanio beretginoa 16 evs 
a7 yietnq of teddy nastogx01l ed fon binote t£ JeY 
meides to not#arcosh & done ,.ote ,atnemunon .alsinog edt! 
eeeo Lenoktqsoxs oi sidiesimssy od yam entstieg Istnensare 
al eteftek Yo ascetrge eit to eakyrem edt bieos of 
S Odd ,NOktGibastnoo & Bf mIOT dgnot Theat nt. esacod 
p fostte Slod-siedt dtoy yd beltitent yileotsedses onied 
8 8d4 dotd loon tot sottive aneem edt th tay zymonoos 1h 
fensq bnometh ogat asecod odt shasno ot eldansterq et ti 
| snottstoette ext{ aseqys bloow aottibertmoo & ‘do 
edt to wtatol, edt 2ntaveo rot ansow Jeelquta oat 
198 9ft Roizoso ai eddie etetenco toatte blod # syed. 
an Iiax edd to edat oft boxed toelomg of areings sot 
peels floss to soatipe sat anieoloms efatot teloanatost 
emg 8 etaiot edt eviy of 10 .(b,o.d,8 .{S 
o(s (XS saz?) Ifew ens to sost ef at 

Aorbes ‘eas yd bewrot ef tntot: feratouide Lantoa saT 
Yo esoetiwe gattoetonwg odt tadt o8 ,eeso sextt edd at 
Serres edd mort tntot [amweoette ont atostorg sel 
yd) eoetine gnisoojorq eit to e9abs odt soalfass oT 
Veenenoat elsaact bioow ,egnibluom to eevoo) ,.ebnoss 1ec¢teup 


ee - 


Zz Te 

a Oe 7 an 
4s ig : 
ae 
I 

a wre + 


>» aaa 


31 

We give in Fig. 24 an example of this diamond paneled ashlar 
masonry from a church in Naples, with a second example in Fig. 
25 composed of alternating ashlars with diamond panels and with 
spherical bosses from the olf fort S. Giovanni at Florence. A 
variation of the motive of this paneled ashlar, which may be 
required for richer structures as well as for the bases of mon- 
uments with the use of polished stones, etc., consists in moul- 
ding the margins (Fig. 26) and also in the truncation of the 
pyramidal bosses. certain blocks like the corner stones of the 
base of a monument, the keystone of an arch, etc., should be 
more richly treated and moulded, but then one must be careful 
not to approach too closely the forms of joinery.:. 

A decorative treatment of the surface itself of the ashtar, 
as well as all over refined modes of cutting it is objectiona- 
ble, as being an expenditure of means in an improper manner; 
for the same cost at which it is sought to ornament ashlars 
with all kinds of niceties in the art style of the Barocco pe- 
riod, we may more richly furnish the architecture with decora- 
tive or sculptured ornament, or we may employ nobler materials. 
Yet it should not be forgotten that in purely decorative works 
like portals, monuments, etc., such a decoration of ashlars by 
ornamental patterns may be permissible in exceptional cases. 

To mould the margins of the surfaces of ashlars leaving the 
bosses in their rough form is a contradittion, the rough bosses 
being esthetically justified by poth their bold effect and th- 
eir economy; yet if the means suffice for moulding the ashlars, 
it is preferable to change the bosses into diamond panels. Su- 
ch a contradition would appear like affectation. | 

The simplest means for causing the joints of the stones to | 
have a bold effect consists either in causing the surfaces of | 
the ashlars to project beyond the face of the wall and form . 
rectangular joints enclosing the surface of each block (Fig. | 
27, a,b,c,d), or to give the joints a triangular section,sunk | 
in the face of the wall (Fig. 27, e). | 

The actual structural joint is formed by the bed of the stone 
in the first case, so that the projecting surfaces of the ash- : 

| 
| 


lar protects the structural joint from the penetration of rain. 
To replace the edges of the projecting surface py chanfers, 
quarter rounds, coves or mouldings, would greatly incresse the 


ee en 


‘ 


end ‘easotoat ols blook df dnd .yimoeem edd to 409° 
dot stoteredt ak sae .ptntol edt to soastesyzs to 
9 nt sesetoat ae dotdw af ,ehetbl ted to et1aq seond 
to mottegdnsoos .aeietomitsdne nt as bettesh et 
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be) gtesd 8 #8 [eaido 6 To Adbastd sad SotdalT .beil 
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dys ee enotendath dove svat tenn eyaibluon daa ets? 
tis beiaey Syd fas (ebsde bas sahil to sootte sat wW 
wy yer seehbotioxsm to.ensottiogo17 to 

fa mio yiereq Znted es atmtol wider {fs teers of 
antstel ton bre berinpss at tatol, Latatourse on 
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datoeticoet satoesidote mishom yd eiudosiivote opooy 
bas ,1ed¢o sa3 eorkepsa eno smokfootsvanco dtiw ets 
t ods Yo otatan ods yolsveb of wod Baetarsbas son 
poeat abteed teem eosta taven neo ,19stel sat 
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t of at seats nisbom to watitediad ta#e13 baoosa 9AT 
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iat edT .et0t tf gnivia nt beyolque anesem ond 


Ber 


32 

cost of the masonry, but it would also increase the richness 
of appearance of the joints, and is therefore to be limited to 
those parts of buildings, in which an increase in expedients 
is desired as in substructures, accentnation of angles, etc. 
At the surface of the wall from which the ashlar projects, the 
joints themselves should not exceed the width of the chisel a 
and it must be constant; if the effect is too slight for large 
blocks, the joints can be made wider outwards, their sections 
being trapezoidal (Fig. 27 a). : 

Triangular joints usually have a right-angled section when 
executed in the usual materials; their effect is more marked 
if their surfaces make an angle of 60° with each other (Fis. 
27, a,bgc); when this diedral angle exceedr 90°, they seem 
broad and also have a weak effect. Fixed rules for the prop- 
ortions of ashlar joints cannot be given, suince their effect 
must always harmonize with the purpose to which then are app- 
lied. Taking the breadth of a chisel as a basis,in case of a 
richly moulded joint (Fig. 27,a,4a), the smaller fillets, chan- 
fers and mouldings must have such dimensions as may be required 
by the effect of light and shade, and by a varied alternation 
of proportions of magnitudes. : 

To treat all ashlar joints as being purely ornamental, where 
no structural joint is required and not letting the real joint 
appear, is one of the greatest barbarisms borrowed from the Ba- 
rocco architecture by modern architects. Architecture disappe- 
ars with construction; one requires the other, and whoever’ does 
not understand how to develop the nature of the former from t 
the latter, can never place himself beside the mediaeval mast- 
ers nor yet beside those of the best Renaissance period, who 
were first of all good monstructors. 

The second great barbarism of modern times is to imitate 
ashlar joints in cement; cement plastering has no limiting di- 
mensions like cut stone, which usually is in courses of 18 to 
24 inches high, but its dimensions may be arranged at pleasure; 
therefore in dividing cement plastering those dimensions and 
projections should be use, which differ as widely as possible 
from those of ashlar masonry. Stucco belongs to the plastic 
and hardening materials, whose treatment should correspond to 
the means employed in giving it form. The imitation of: ashlars 


a ee ees eee 


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Veer etdxied. wtotian 
bbA bas yinoean Ase} to memtosqa & { LT ai evry oF 
of to sso al ».eS .8f9 of yvinosaa namof to slqmaxe telt 
a ga eeosiq goof ni dno tud abed S003 diin dbsiaesp 
{) qeo, etataqotqqs yiev ai baod asises mobnes isd 
ead ni sen ict cele ,ymonooe 2afouborwg go easem sno ak 
£rs102 .ebaty [le tefadton snidioqqes setatourtedas 
kaiten nt atetenos bnod asides 1sfv391 of noistenatt & 
te .git) t$dgied Isnpe to to (OF .2f%) fenpenn Yo aserg0o 
peont? «(If Of .eatg) edtgnel dnetettrh to secota nian 
ie deur exoold sevol edt ,atetde satevenstt of tosidaa eis 
; ed yam 1edhid edt.bos ,etutostt brovs of teatsoge 
Sifaqne es od bisods exzol{d ed% to adtynel sdt yilatece 
5 sonsertsaei yitae base [eveatbem ,nswof sal .yrteop eat 
+ .ytmosen tslies [ersten atdt derzetesq evewle stood 
a supeeiatiolg bas evienegxrent ae dtod aniniastda 
mdin somabtocce af i1t0w eysuls oF ef slatonitag toe. 
eat tot beec ed yer yodt tent o# bas ,bsbivoty alist 
7 ,wrot Aoied famton sat to seso nt as ,asaoqioy ee 
| Math ent pyiwtaeo dt Of edt Lidnw axe nsmok edt sort 
> Yo tdkted edt at yatmrotiog beonboitat tart sor 
_ ebelgmet negoe1D mi [even een dotdu ,eenote to dtyasl ot 
“to. seldmetet yiisienes atsl(dee rslimta to baod salt 
@ baoet Baeteee to enotenenkh Isacitzoqo1g 9n3 ‘ytnosee 49 


25 
in stucco exactly destréys and falsifies the structural meaning; 
Whoever becomes accustomed to such forms no longer knows bow to 
use cut stone and transfers to it the formlessness of stucco 
whenever possible. 

In conclusion, it should be remembered that for purely deco- 
rative purposes, the arrangement of ashlars in mosaic pattemns 
with congruent elements is not excluded, on Palladio’s famous 
basilica at Vicenza is to be found such ashlar masonry of mar- 
ble in scale-like patterns employed on a wall beneath stairs. 
(Fig. 28). 

y. Ashlar bonds. | , 

The most natural and unconstrained kind of ashlar bond, which 
is both best and most picturesque, is that in which the stones 
are cut and set just as obtained in the quarry, without attem- 
pting to anrange them in regular courses or to make them of u 
uniform height. 

We sive in Fig. 7 a specimen of creek masonry and add a sim- 
ilar example of Roman masonry in Fig. 29. In case of stones 
quarried with good beds but ont in long pieces as in porphyry, 
this random ashlar bond is very appropriate , especially as it 
is one means op producing economy, also for use in bases and 
substructures supporting worksaof all kinds, fortifications, etc. 

A transition to regular ashlar bond consists in making the 
courses of unequal (Fig. 30) or of equal height (Fig. 31) but 
using stones of different lengths (pigs. 30, 31). Since ashlars 
are subject to transverse strain, the lower blocks must also be 
‘shortest to avoid fracture, and the higher may be longer, but 
generally the lengths of the blocks should be as supplied by . 
the quarry. The Roman, mediaeval and early Renaissance archi- 
tects always preferred this natural ashlar masonry, thereby 
obtaining both an inexpensive and picturesque masonry. The cor- 
rect principle is to always work in accordance with the mater- 
ials provided, and so that they may be used for the most diver- 
se purposes, as in case of the normal brick form, predominant 
from the Roman era until the 16 th century; the High Renaissa- 
nce first introduced uniformity in the height of courses and 
in length of stones, which was usual in Crec®an temples. 

The bond of similar ashlars generally resembles that of bri- 
ck masonry’ the proportional dimensions of ashlars depend on 


sda klauiiali a aida ell aaladiial 
q is ’ 4 : : 


Ropar ne 
a sted Ad yeenth0o to tz ten sat bus beyolgme eletisdam ods 
“gdgked bne, asjnease: edd of aoktsoqorg sosarb ot ytav yer 
. te *notfomiteno® to astaye.tee{gutea eiT .eisldes edt 
itt mods 4{faw edt cguordt ylevttne bnetxe esnote etd 
y yan sonote to diynef odd .S jddgied at yiev yam ese 
© .aL%) saottentinoo efdieeoy yatwolfot sat gntonbor 
b yatisanel [eops to eenote atin fdgien Laups to aseiuoo 
\D iedtenel [enoens to esnote a3twy dated Iaupe to ee 
qb iedtaae! (anpe to aenode atte etdgied [aopens to. 
 .entanel Iscpene to escote dtiw addated [sepenu 
asl fist seods Has efoold esenpe to etetanoo flew 2 YI 
fetned gainolfot edt ,sisupe sit to sbie sas sotns to 
‘dtin eda@ated [supe to eeeawoo .9 (SF wore elder 
sien dtiw etdaten [supenn to seeim0o .Y 3(FE 2387) 
] ithsebeer bh semote bas etdyted (supe to‘eeeip0o ,) 
| satis zenote an sifhted Isopsaw to seateoo .f <aaoldo 
ih ik ae aa eGnoldo bas staupe 
mf | bentmexs 618 etasmensita Josaettib Faagie sesad tI 
Meii sdt to sndgted eds tied evet of esets09 Bo! edd 
‘deal 46q etmtot bas bee bed no toda! to teoo evitelsr 
6 =rernoffot es of [fin yimoeem sad to asta [siot? | 
soe sOF BE LT 2C.EY Gd ghd (es 4FO 6 E85 532 ad 
hice 6 bra b .o :eldeiste1g sts 3 bana’ d .2 asd? ano 
Pilato yltaco seon sft sxe 4 bus t 08 ylleope sad ,svie 
Pasel scodt to Aatessiy taon sta 8 bas d shaod SAT .absod 
| @ia  .evieneqxs stom ent to anieesly taom end sx b pyl 
vbpa teissh ems H Ane t jsbnod sdt Ile to omoting seon 
“aninesqas dssodt ytetiav to {ipl teom gad? at a tod 
id $oetts gntesslq s gatoubowy at atedte edt Isoxs of [52 
ares ‘dguoidt antbnetxs eanote diin ebnod onsg? *Ulistevib 
Badte baod steraqes to beeoqmoo exdtt of telimin ylrsen xs 
mid tadto Sma .2e9ndotds atitae ad? Agyordt bosatxs doide 
qmoo yilacen ,stendoids ait to diag &® Ariyquoco ylao 
dtel ef soage a8 to .(a ,i (DE LET) erssiosaite ond 
BE -BLT) yrnoesm yremboro atin Oallit ebtantedte bae meds 
RRO {dE T Yo besten’ x 2 F of nevey of blwode sonsi9tex9 
A$ bos ,este Laop9 to renose to tliwd ylewtins et ilew sad 
$ Yo eesatotds ent yd beniwteteb ai sacte baod ¢ to atzacl 
ae C2 Ot Pi 1 Oe | obra att gated edd Bled eno {lax 


way i 
vail A> it 


ha ie 


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5S ben 


Af u ‘eal “4 


34 

the materials employed and the height of courses; their length 
may vary in direct proportion to the strength and height of t 
the ashlars. The simplest system of construction is that where 
the stones extend entirely through the wall; then, 1, the cour- 
ses may vary in height; 2, the length of stones may vary, thus 
producing the following possible combinations (Fig. 32); a, ¢ 
courses of equal height with stones of equal lengths; b, cours- 
es of equal height with stones of unequal lengths; c, courses 
of unequal heights with stones of equal lengths; d, courses of 
unequal heights with stones of unequal lengths. 

Tf a wall consists of square blocks and those with lengths 
of twice the side of the square, the following bonds are poss- 
ible ’Fig. 32); e, courses of equal heights with square stones, 
(Fig. 33); f, courses of unequal heights with square stones; 
¢g, courses of equal heights and stones alternately square and 
oblong; h, courses of unequal heights with stones alternately 
square and oblons. 

Tf these eight different arrangements are examined, assuming 
the low courses to have half the height of the high ones, the 
relative cost of labor on bed and end joints per unit of super- 
ficial area of the masonry will be as follows:- a, 48; sg, 52; 
vb, 56; c, 63; d, 63; a, 64; h, 73.5; f, 84. For economic reas- 
ons then a, b and ¢ are preferable; c, d and e are mort expen- 
sive, but equally so; f and h are the most costly of all these 
bonds. The bonds b and ¢ are most pleasing of those least cost- 
ly; d is the most pleasing of the more expensive, and 6 is the 
most uniform of all the bonds; f and H are dearer and are ugly, 
but h is that mast full of variety though appearing too fanci- 
ful to excel the others in producing a pleasing effect by its 
diversity. These bonds with stones extending through the wall 
are nearly similar to those composed of separate bond stones, 
which extend through the entire thickness, and other blocks o 
only occupying a part of its thickness, usually composed oft 
two stretchers (Fig. 34, i, k), or a space is left between 
them and afterwards filled with ordinary masonry (Fig. 34,1). 
Preference should be given to F 34 k instead of F 34 i, since 
the wall is entirely built of stones of equal size, and the 
length of a bond stone is determined by the thickness of the 
wall, one half this being iti: side. . 


' 


» ulnomm09 teom eft to Het at tats e9e@ of yess si I1 
edt heas eyobeed to asdapn edt istee1h edt .baod 
pcosesss at {law edd aguoad .yiseesoen 214 eeneqxe doe 
te bedieant Anied rebsed s ,bses yl intisge e1e yeaa 
s atecoterte owt ,S27909 3atbsed edit af-asdedeste Sridt 
a ott Yo siins> of stta99 mo1t ee1p0o aoidoterte afd ok 
gi QI .yteinev bas eesndois to foette as oviy of a8 oF 
Sere? a,.04 Litw a ~tnebive bse tnontmong sbem od of e148 
gate o1g tin eredoderse sdt detent? of ynonoos to ssa 
pen exsbesd Yo sbas edt aattiwo .ssost tisAt no 
Batt otinem etsd ebnod {fs to teedota eat .eleneg boom 
1 Isyor 8 10% been yleteixqoxgga #t ,eviensqxe taom 
ad laisesean rebted & th boa ,anthlind asl[imie yore 
BSSTR od Yeu 91904 .redaid Seodd Tot nett esAtHOD t9KO! 
gniseerd to eshom edd ot oals dod aiot edt at ylno Jon 
se taal edt of tnotetanoo sd of astiesh eno tk ,nen0 
anitsida istse12 edt oF tosidoe eXoold anol dus nol 
pont afensq baomath saitoelorg yleno1te dtiw dedaraori 
yletsvee seel base [lame od? sbenteatte.yletevee seon 
lea eiqmexs 101 ,ysw yar ai betet00s> od Jagim erehsso 
m 10 ,tt3u07% yitess [stisten 2 to e172 yedt ti aedttoao 
Snote btad & to benogmoo tk asmote enotoeng exif 309 
aif fartnes saT (o .m Cf e3h%) dakfoq book s.to eid 
+ bas ~eleneq boomerd wollede svad tezin isines satal be 
20d [soiiedqeined déin bedetntt ed bleoo etshaad ay 
elas _ beznece1 eatilaseyz1o diin asnote esotoeiq eal bedssi2 
‘ae doodsin betouitenoo ed yimomem done tI «cS BLT ak. ae 
ep  apuosad sd ot tasage exoold srsgpe saisl sat davoddle 
Laas. Blaode yods .sedsezo% yinoeam $42 Slod wiiess yon? bas 
E begede 2d yom dotdn .etevit to eftan edil absed 2asdoetorg 
xe sidt oq edd 10 snote od3 to seenbied odd diiw sonabi0coce 
oN eesnesbe 
at at bevoramt od oss yen eishsed.to amzot sat 
st08T nf sosleq fined edt ot oll{panse seilol.yd beyol . 
ve ' elp .d .O& oBLT) tloemtd yI besiaeserges ee 
serqnt olgute sey sidon & sien of at yimossm sid iI 
Ltn fakietem boo} to eteldes bedailog bne beeseib yladoo 
ei soisogisenco to ebom teed edt tf bas .dead 1s987ge eye 
| extdne edd dgvowdt bastxe bivode ersines edd ,bstqobe 


de 


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35 

It is easy to see that in case of the most commonly employed 
bond, the greater the number of headers used the more labor a 
and expense are necessary, though the wall is stronger, hence 
they are sparinily used, a header being inserted after each t 
third stretmher in the heading course, two stretchers extending 
in the stretching course from centre to centre of the headers, 
so as to give an effect of richness and variety. If the headers 
are to be made prominent and evident, it will be preferable for 
sake of sconomy to finish the stretchers with projecting bosses 
on their faces, cutting the ends of headers smooth or with dia- 
mond panels. The richest of all bonds here mentioned, h, also 
most expensive, is appropriately used for a royal palace or a 
any Similar building, and if a harder material be used;for the 
lower courses than for those higher, there may be great variety, 
not only in the form but also in the modes of dressing the st- 
ones, if one desires to be consistent to the last degree, the 
low and long blocks subject to the greater strains should be | 
finished with strongly projecting diamond panels in places 
most severely strained; the small and less severely compressed 
headers might be decorated in any way, for example with sunk 
rosettes if they are of a material easily wrought, or may be 
cut like precious stones if composed of a hard stone suscepti- 
ble of a good polish (Fig. 35, n, 0). The central lightly load- 
ed large ashlar might have shallow diamond panels, and the lar- 
ge headers could be finished with hemispherical bosses or be 
treated like precious stones with crystalline recessed angles 
as in Fig. 25. If such masonry be constructed without headers 
although the large square blocks appear to be through stones , 
and they really hold the masonry together, they should have 
projecting neads like nails or rivets, which may be shaped in 
accordance with the hardness of the stone or the possible exp- 
edients. | 

The forms of headers may also be improved in the manner emp- 
loyed by Julian Sangallo in the Condi palace in Fforence and 
as represented by himself (Fig. 36, p, q)- 

If the masonry is to make a noble yet simple impression, sm- 
oothly dressed and polished ashlars of good material will alw- 
ays appear best, and if the best mode of construction is also 
adopted, the ashlars should extend through the entire thickness 


Oe ee —_— 


oct ; } ¥ 7. hie ere a ae A eT i> |) AT ee 
SET tre ne 


ite it ono Lantos sit eax traoese to Saft era? .{fan ‘eat to 
ean baw eae bne ry ne to esiqmaxe tsar 
a z eMomoboe rf 
4 at anibae Saletes to aesadtocone ‘grtesetont edt dtiy 
Idtesoq teseolo edt of saey satvextti sin .sostuse be 
Uertane seeds teat of ,etntet bae bas abed to isddexzot 
f.do80 no beddua yllnteiso giay sta efoold sdt tk 1094 
omed ylfootzeq swid owes edt ¢e od [aireden add IT 
os 4 anoave Yo yimtotian 8a .wrotine (ae ve ad toloo. ett 
+ 88 eviade Jon bib sieetD ste nofaw tot ,beonshors 
‘evan ton blaow yedt to ,yrmoses Yo L[eebi toadgin 
1d to aqisés wor1ss yd seat Setzen evad to ednto, aft beb 
°. Mf oidestendsne <Btetholosadois of rom19 me ets0q9q8 Moines 
e 16 nk Jedi sxed Bededa sd blrofs t! .ystmiotion to 
tht exoold ersupe to seu edt Seonsomes ylatigas cand A108 
onc oved blecda ellew iotdt yiev ni aenose-dgno1st Jedd 
tm od% #8 aeiow od of gon a8 of .Athserd bas dtqsb 194 
eidteetmbes ska YE .Bf% Yo dads edtl nottourtenco # tevenod © 
woghid eft yd lew ont to eeendoidd ost esteothat dors 
& eenote ylteco .ahsd book dvix eanote aldatab yisT . 
[isd-oa sit of bedinoe {ex sie ,datioqg boos 8 to sidagao 
jalfen Ratost to shom setf{uoeg a .(e VE .2s%) baod ese 


anopas betesnev nT eeoaso L[enoktgeoxes nt nofisoititenat Ise 
tt dads 3 bive ei tf ,Siston0D 10 elddws ,dAtowlorsd yd bsdoad 
dag etedofsite ‘fo eeets0o ect ,bean 18 eenote dguords on 
es: ~ (4 BF .RzT) [few 90% ofat ylyesd bustxe yletanted 
gat bood s .bevas sd of ei yynoeam t4e[des no todal ti 

| to etitkied edt tod .efdetetesq yfno ton ei arsbeod 
J ot ei Isitedem sat Yk tod zeldtesog ee te913 os 9d 
der ered? ,snote elttil gatdetatst esisatnvoo nt es bes 
dotad to baz smote to asetuco guiisaistis to 1edtts sot 
mots{ed ,ylesI teqqo oi sommoo ytev sa (np ,8& 2429) 
| atowiorad bas tel[ies to eXoold staniesis 2atyolqma to 10 
nt Savot eemigemos at yraosen hextm to baid etd? bv, OF 
p elddns baa raldee Yo momtoege wsltmie & bas .somaty bane - 
Dawa’ fa wroeeres, to sites sat to seerttad s nt eteixe 
Yo exsia tomas sd¢ tot sidsting sd yem yrnoean bexim eiat 

os et tr bas .sonetaract [fame e3f Yo etiqe ni sedowds 
eStiaveg aiedspor bas basllok to eedorsto edt at bagot yl 


| ait 


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36 
of the wall. This kind of masonry was the normal one in the f 
finer examples of the Creeks and Romans, and was termed opus 
isodomum. 

With the increasing smoothness of ashlars ending in a polish- 
ed surface, wie likewise pass to the closest possible fitting 
together of beds and end joints, so that these entirely disap- 
pear if the blocks are very carefully rubbed on each other. 

If the material be at the same time perfectly homogeneous and 
its color be exaf@tly uniform, a uniformity of appearance is 
produced, for which the Greeks did not strive as being the 
highest ideal of masonry, or they would not have sometimes gil- 
ded the joints or have marked them by narrow strips of bronze, 
which appears an error to archaeologists, enthusiastic lovers 
of uniformity. It should be stated here that in general ashlar 
work has entirely renounced the use of square blocks, further 
that through-stones in very thick walls should have much grea- 
ter depth and breadth, so as not to be broken at the middle; 
hoxever a construction like that of Fig. 37 r is admissible, 
which indicates the thickness of the wall by its higher headers. 
_ Very durable stones with good beds, costly stones and those 
capable of a good polish, are well suited to the so-called pl- 
ate bond (Fig. 37 s), a peculiar mode of facing walls not with- 
out justification in exceptional cases. In veneered masonry b 
backed by brickwork, rubble or concrete, it is evident that if 
no through stones are used, the courses of stretchers must al- 
ternately extend deeply into the wall (Fig. 38, t). 

If labor on ashlar masonry is to be saved, a bond having few 
headers is not only preferable, but the heights of courses must 
be as great as possible; but if the material is to be econoni- 
zed as in countries furnishing little stone, there is the cho- 
ice, either of alternating courses of stone and of brickwork 
(Pig. 38, u) as very common in upper Italy, Belgium and Holland, 
or of employing alternate blocks of ashlar and brickwork (Fig. 
2g,v). This kind of mixed masonry is sometimes found in Belgium 
and France, and a similar specimen of ashlar and rubble masonry 
exists in a buttress of the castle of fleissent 

This mixed masonry may be suitable for the brick piers of 
churches in spite of its small resistance, and it is according- 
ly found in the churches of Holland and southern pavaria. The 


~— 
—— 


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ynam 10 meee ed yor noidn .yomet 2 berebteccs 
‘yd beweves os ded? \soaett [atines to seach! 
m mefkintl oot hetefer at eid¢ of .atolo> Jnerattib 
fh anes yino Hotty ,borreq favestbes ait to enoties 
oneeatensl $d2' to ttyen 6 @aw tr bn eiqioniay gat 
es{qfontiq [erntontte s ofmk ein? beqolsayat 
Diab iais Baigquasio base Zotnetaet 10t ednetherz?.y 
yas ,n6s708 to andsem xd, t9dfob 0% benefast eta esnods 
fin bib Bnemiceqe seid? ,sencte edt to enotiostor yd 
Yo alewob yd to ,asfq at nwode ea Ob art mi ae 
ne De tet RET) t9dt0 dors! ofnt eloold edt gattnsdai 3 
iP befseonco xitstens3 sia ejatastest seon? *agvato yd 
oo sat no seSqyqe ob egaatd tr -esmote odt neswted ate 
foe one Lenistxs ex beteott sents O18 yeds ,sostr0e 
rm Pie’ momt o (Sb .ore edt fl 10 .e . Sb 684 of ae desl 
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meg *," eTayvens2 nt tinoeen welded .2 
) egatss smoe bevrerso ylraelo sonasetans® staf sat 
haa bane baa bed -olqmaxe rot .betoefhen masd sonre 
‘Raidento OF tootdne ste abod eltdw .ettaq tnets? 
{ \ateite yas Oot toettoa tom oe etriot bas . si OF Someta 
BD carina vrese 9d Hbivode abed say teat awolfot Yr 
fot ,Jor[Inoo blotows 2 dsiv esteem sno bone ,etmtot bae 
evad teqd .sbiea Jeao od teow ealytea [srstosdtdore 
Hi .S Geonshatens® teed Say nt wa ednio’ to ebnit ado 
2 ibioiue ed atntol bre has tnentso3q teon sham sd teur 
ybe y ebnid dtod evasl ot tnetelencont 3d nodd bivor 
wbes0e, 84 od nodt bioow eioroetifow Levesisem bas tnsions 
busiesjgs edt ead yinossan sat ,hetneoce sre shed yino 
a ae vee et dotdw ,snote to steyel eyounttaoo to bseoamns 
J div noitonatence 8 es yinoeen S43 Tebienoo on tf 
je Ot fi walls ot reqo7g OF bloow SE LAOoR ew 89798 
# bison Gintot bas eid ered ,atieq to besoqu0o stnsoowWs 
p Od YAr Stusdorte etdt ‘zebod ont an [Tew ee trsq vrows 
bas efmtot aediom (sroten ont yd ylauta teok Soeite 
| edt sonbory oF r9bx0 ni atifonom # 88 149948 OF deen 
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ON GE ee eS ee cr 


37 

veneering of walls with elements of different forms is to be 
considered a fancy, which may be seen on many Renaissance bui- 
ldings of central France, that are covered by mosaic work of 
different colors. To this is related the Italian marble incrus- 
tations of the mediaeval period, which only comprise the cover- 
ing principle, and it was a merit of the Renaissance to have 
developed this into a structural principle. 

y.Hxpedients for fastening and clanmping together ashlars. 

Stones are fastened together by means of mortar, as well as 
by projections of the stones, three specimens of which are giv- 
en in Fig. 40 as shown in plan, or by dowels of stone or metal, 
by indenting the blocks into each other (Fig. 41), and finally 
by cramps. These fastenings are generally concealed in the joi- 
nts between the stones: if cramps do appear on the external s 
surface, they are either treated as external anchors set in 1 
lead as in Fig. 42, a, or like Fig. 42, b from the stair balus- 
trade of the bishop’s palace at Lucca. 

§. Ashlar masonry in general. 

The late Renaissance clearly observed some things that have 
since been neglected. For example, bed and end joints play dif- 
ferent parts; while beds are subject to crushing and offer res- 
istance to it, end joints are not subject to any strain; hence 
if follows that the beds should be made prominent but not the 
end joints, and one meets with a twofold conflict, for:- 1, all 
architectural styles must be cast aside, that have accented b 
voth kinds of joints as in the best Renaissance; 2, the beds 
must be made most prominent and end joints be subordinated, it 
would then be inconsistent to leave both kinds unmarked, since 
ancient and medieeval architecture would then be rejected. If 
only beds are accented, the masonry has the appearance of being 
composed of continuous layers of stone, ahich is not at all so. 

If we consider the masonry as a construction with a right to 
appear as such, it would be proper to allow it to appear as a 
structure composed of parts, where the end joints would take 
their part as well as the beds; this structure may be charact- 
erized most simply by the natural mortar joints and does not 
need to appear as a monolith in order to produce the effect of 
unity or of a whole, but the power of unity over diversity must 
be evident in the structure itself. 


iad 


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er dr tt bas sbsdtiogeb -yoeer1ls atasibeqxs ent to 
ment ve ai dotdw .ehed mott efatot bas detogntseib 
: imtot, Leigdowise onit est {fe aiem ot elderkesb at ar 
intenoo teortu edd atin ~gnibiind ettias edt ot ina 
th od bas shed ett aadt tewotten od yam etatot bas 
be Bi eberagit 
© ystinaloger gedd ,w9qmee to wielo add Inds sn TIT 
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ey abosd wo boed eno no .ytnosem to fostts oidetsw 
a dened ent to eoatutogorte: eentt snr tedte 963 no baa 
bata: azea2 20 dt8g Book & Sno dotdw .ebhres dean sd oF 
Bi 9 a8 8 edt .dasiteor? Hae mot of: ys tretpget1t of yYtuesd 
S eagdoottadue efit yino Jad? ,tnematiepes a‘tequee Lo 
| tito to sboa odd wode bleode ,sead Attias edd of Boi 
i 3 2 notteni0% [sintgonuite sad oltdw ,etarot, to daemszo87 
ren ee oh .tne1sggs of 9d Jon been sivtouttereg 
[feow8 baa ftss01d2 ,i¢dit edt obtee nowdt of rentis 
d soten yidias to yrosdt & gnivietidetes to to .ar0o719 28 
ha seidattites(, betebfrenoo 9d yas asinyourte 
> ybsorls Barttio> to sebom suoriey edt to enser xo 
ene .ebaod to shbakiv ent? bas sislies sd3 to eatot edd 
1s @ bofiey & yinoesm att gniviy wot sidallevs sis atoosh 
o1 odd bos sesidiot sit to Atynsitts svieses add nox 
qe ylesatig bas soe7) sdatl add of BafbLind Lead ond 
Sat aldtesoq oie etoetis bsiasy trom ont .soaleo eat 
to enciensath sinioeda eAT .yincean tweldee to sone 
Pot toette Lenbivibni ifemt bbs enottsogozg rLeat dae 
Bialies Se0a3. stenpd. .zinoean edd to sonetasggs [87 
(Sf aebhbfod cele ots senote (Lean .anoldo ti. nsat 19h 
)egaoldo ti Oe S38 agnods egial ,yratta0o ent no :e7st 
. to sonersegas lenisetxe ay aL geondois beesstoal 
6 ebon edt yd aedtio)\;even Mead at beoubory sd yen yir0 
Yd eeesed edd gokartet yo to ,Snod eat goiyiev yd ants 
®@ 1933ed to een edd ,gatMetlog bas goiddyt saat 
) .Btatol to mottasoosb yd ,elstem 10 snote tenil to eye 
Bess [em70% doe betoette [fs .anidiuo to show edt not 22, 
ik ~8a0ldeno Sstinsze tex esnotg edt ti ss araloes Yo saan 
dancksoetdo ylbebiroeb ak ,oc007ad ed¢ yd bedanikiro Jedd 


. ole 


ate 


38 | 

For the same reason the joints should be accented by means 
of the expedients already described, and if it is desired to 
distinguish end joints from beds, which is only proper when 
it is desirable to make all the fine structural joints evid- 
ent in the entire building, with the utmost consistency the e 
end joints may be narrower than the beds and be differently 
treated. 

If we admi the claim of Semper, that regularity of form and 
similarity of treatment are the supreme requirements for the 
artistic effect of masonry, on one hand our hands are tied, 
and on the other the fines structures of the Renaissance are 
to be cast aside, which owe a good part of their characteristic 
beauty to irregularity in form and treatment. The same is true 
of Semper’s requirement, that only the substructure as belong- 
ing to the earth base, should show the mode of cutting and ar- 
rangement of joints, while the structural formation of the su- 
perstructure need not be so apparent. We merely have a choice, 
either to throw aside the Pitti, Strozzi and Rucellai palaces 
as errors, or of establishing a theory of artby which these s 
structures may be considered justifiable. 

By means of the various modes of cutting already described, 
the forms of the ashlars and the kinds of bonds, numerous expe- 
dients are available for siving the masonry a varied character. 
From the massive strength of the fortress and the roughness of 
the rural building to the light grace and princely splendor of 
the palace, the most varied effects are possible in the appear-— 
ance of ashlar masonry. The absolute dimensions of the blocks 
and their proportions add their individual effect to the gene- 
ral appearance of the masonry. Square faced ashlars appear bol- 
der than if oblong, small stones are also bolder if nearly sq- 
uare; on the contrary, large stones are so if oblong. 

Increased richness in the external appearance of ashlar mas—- 
onry may be produced in kany® ways; either by the mode of cut- 
ting, by varying the bond, or by refining the bosses by mould- 
ings, rubbing and polishing, the uee of better materials, inl- 
ays of finer stone or metals, by decoration of joints, etc. 

As for the mode of cutting, all affected and formal treat- 
ment of ashlars as if the stones were stuffed cushions, like 
that originated by the Barocco, is decidedly objectionable. No 


rn ale eal 


ane 
ee : 
doratoostiors edt dokine ot shaw od aleode sqnedss 
ot Derieeh ton st et ‘2g brs .28W wae ot todsl, ead 
. odd evig ot sidareteny ei ti ,toded dekval od and 
ee TRE ( <stetgtooa of Aatknoled motds100sp 
bath. bas. Aton otseom of ahs! brod edt tnsoo8 of 
ng ing oof beretao ti yraogem to istosiedo Leisdouite 
si Ia. 8 nkases of betresh si tk tf .ytetzs0D sdd oO 
aeises “Bd ys189 oF bas .o Cf -3LF edit Sod Leis 
aka ajasi 6 , faqado tsile sa t0o% aa taiog tesagio 
5a 30 fnemteert benttes stom 2 sau of aldinetmieg ak tt 
fart em teldon déiw ,antdetiog hae Qaiddos ,aaibivom yd 
se9ni onole ,alsisw seldom ,eenoie evoiostq~ines to. eyal 
oy aarotts; hayusts atin gorblty yl statol, to acotteroceb 
Ott erten, bison nistngot oildeq « 10 fehwomen A .coLee 
fuoe gatbaogses109 edt .noisteicoeb To bois edd io 
Mott a. stfopes Oivow ataiies ex0grt bas aonttasaex 
pie saonsois eidt smegiwe of sldteeog anted ton SI 
mH SX) ,al 708 {stnemento yletoq ai sliteateieg at dost 
» yletem Anids tedtis hae .noksonttenoo sad sonvore 
a edd to ebacst eds sit! .eldaem Oerndgloog Yo gai 
Sedetlog dtin eoostaoe eft Qniteoions to 40 ,sived 
3 yd betnomsnte bas atatoi beblin vein esnote aso 
yae1d asen nitetaliey olteno to feqeto sft ai an eat 
pad to eatslq betnsmanto yd yinoeem ens Baitavon to yl 
ue onentt éietone at sosst? mi encod ae elsisaa taldon to 
Semotinex ef yeu elfen snote Yo noktoswenco seiluosg A 
TH to ativbe tne toszi0o yleriene eat isqtoning seodw 
OH. sdt ak Havok si cords, to elqwexe ns mada to 
#enoo Ileaw aot ;(€S .3ak%) gupdensyed de e2enal .5 to 
dud smeeriofd? sartne efi dheetat gatboetxe gon een 
z en? .1801 at tay bas toot at #oeCo1g sted Jads 
' bog ,eltiton sidestos to svaitinow as yd besofsae 
| iene NO Svaonon smoopd shse.sao no ensiedJeq 
AbiosNs .eysN evoirsy al bstestt ed you oviton Lewtowrte 
re perenenie etou bane yenatad base \.me2cKo bnod ond 
a eee ds sbeyolgme sd god? yan elise 
. s083 see etosad Seodn ,yIsORse Wides ot Jearso00. ol 
ge 30 eonctoen nt drow t9ldee Qaktetiat ebsod ,ferstours 
ped Of ete ,.9%5 ,At0n Latem ,kntsooRnten ,esltt evote dos, 
in Bs Ieutoe to en bate ton yes tad of pidteeoy tx bereett 


e e i 


e 4 ; } i 


coe Wig <u als, 4 
.s , TaN ak 


39 
attempt should be made to enrich the architecture by increasing 
the labor in any way, and if it is not desired to economize b 
but to lavish babor, it is preferable to give the ashlars a d 
decoration belonging to sculpture. 

To accent the bond leads to mosaic work and disguises the s 
structural character of masonry if carried too far. 

On the contrary, if it be desired to retain a rich yet struc- 
tural bond like Fig. 35, 0, and to carry its decoration to the 
highest point as for an altar Chapel, a Santa Casa of Loretto, 
it is permissible to use a more refined treatment of the bosses 
by moulding, rubbing and polishing, with nobler materials, in- 
lays of semi-precious stones, noble metals, stone intarsias, 
decorations of joints by gilding with stampec patterns or to- 
saics. A memortal or a public fountain would justify the use 
of this kind of decoration. The corresponding sculptured orna- 
mentation and figure reliefs would require a rich treatment. 

Tt not being possible to surpass this richness ‘in decoration, 
which is permissible in purely ornamental works, we must then 
renounce the construction, and either think merely of 4 cover- 
ing of sculptured marble, like the facade of the Gertosa at P 
Pavia, or of incrusting the surfaces with polished semi-preci- 
ous stones with gilded joints and ornamented by stamped patte- 
rns, aS in the chapel of castle Karlstein near Prague, or last- 
ly of covering the masonry by ornamented plates of bronze or 
of nobler metals as done in Creece in ancient times. 

A peculiar construction of stone walls may be mentioned here, 
ghose principel is entirely correct and admits of great variety 
of forms, an example of which is found in the Romanesque church 
of S. James at Regensburg (Fig. 43); the wall consists of sto- 
nes not extending through its entire thickness, but so arranged 
that part project in front and part in rear. The panels are e 
enclosed by an architrave of suitable profile, and the convex 
pattersns on one side become concave on the other. This truly 
structural motive may be treated in various ways, according to 
the bond chosen, and thinner and more ornamental enclosing wa 
walls may thus be employed. 

In contrast to ashlar masonry, whose nature is thoroughly 
structural, bonds imitating ashlar work in structures of wood, 

Dutch stove tiles, wainscoting, metal work, etc., are to be 


treated if possible, so that may not remind us of actual ash<lars. 


ice oe " 

| it yoda ylentens Jefeneq nod vetefaes 
© Bdtaotome ‘belfioty Yidott sion /noiszetqace 
1 to eftasontse to? sfiewolls Yioo don ere 
fae writ pdelh od ‘of “Ste Yaetdn0s Sdf a0 ted .enote 
BW Borstesl[y Yo befated ‘no Mteltes ofnt enorsivic 
sf out! qseqgs of teanam ovitetoneb yisi0d s nt bstsesd 
f sity ‘basolons $0 Sleode seotetvib doak .tedtsyot boxer 
o7 6 svolt ye Satheobe bot a Sr¥neS ati ,webi0d ‘eviess 
me in Ramo SSS '** “\etramsrta vedio bs 


ey 


ee) CL ee 


eYIoosey Aor. .S 
® eenmty Peotiaee sdt nt bavot ersr eflaw dora 
He kHaxsiend Ynindns beew Yrs jansoblsy> ‘ne aners 
al md ‘‘srediom tiedqes dd. 
‘gnesm ya sdtowlorid begofeveb tertt ensmos sat 
ylbiger yeds inowes bre tation totssape bax yeto 
ide hiiéxons to bas siaiomos to yinorses Sexitm to sbhafd ffs 
“9 “eda 0% BntoeY 8 ¢e bead ylteid> stew axotrd anenw 
nulla q bas splpansist yitisq beyofime vedt seogisy eri 
oO” not fF 30% eslfF Ynoldo Rian ylisrenes .2eltt Yaluine 
rent WGntset ott tot eelid wafusnatrt ‘Gne wisbesa to ese 
>y009 sistono> to eean 2 wesw [few add dotdw barced 
"2 pre tect eeifeqe snore ‘vo ssfit Yo etaembet? bra Jn 
faq siedu Yinoser Yo Deri @& aa (fon ae wntsotge suzo 
Psofoo to wonet fatnos trod ‘yd Beombong stew ebatd {fe 
le ae <eavote botolao 
Bax Noktosttanco Yotad sshe albota eos gars, 
oeraees \eqote® to edtag auoitey nt eyaw dnetettié 
eye) dfion to anteafa wol ats Jntuevad eoned? naeddcoe 
Steers Yaswish dio bea yla¥y dvtem yfad JbaslfoR ne 
* imfe Sntvad eetttavoo vedio sdt ,sottourtenos Hos 
og eakoitd Bue snote to to stntxtw s beyolane ylev 
‘efbbin etidne ed? ariish dneffot me been saw Haod’ & 
een br’ atensderte to asexsd> anktentedie to Gntsere 
PWihas oF fnoqasTtoo don b&b sored sas Yo engunel 3a? 
| Boies svaotat Ban wanrot to antiserd ‘Yeiuger «i ‘fend 08 
gy eS ee  Ieeapeo. baooae 
| to besogmoo yllawen xt {fsw sd? to norraog edbhie eat 
k B to asemoo stenistis yal of et Ynontsor2 shine eat 


a: ie 


. 
iy “aE 


40 
ashlars. Sunk panels, entirely inappropriate for stones under 
compression, more richly profiled enclosing mouldings, etc., 
are not only allowable for structures of materials other than 
stone, but on the contrary are to be preferred... 

Divisions into ashlars on painted or plastered walls must be 
treated in a purely decorative manner to appear like tapestries 
sewed together. Hach division should be enclosed within a deco- 
ratvive border, its centre being accented by flowers, rosettes 
and other ornaments. 


2. Brick Masonry. 

Brick walls were found in the earliest times among the Assy- 
rians and Chaldeans; they used unburnt bricks general laid wi- 
th asphalt mortar. 

The Romans first developed brickwork; by means of excellent 
clay and superior mortar and cement they rapidly constructed 
all kinds of mixed masonry of concrete and of backed rubble, 
where bricks were chiefly used as a facing for the wall; for 
this purpose they employed partly triangular and partly rect- 
angular tiles, generally using oblong tiles for through cour- 
ses of headers and triangular tiles for the facing stretchers, 
benind which the wall was a mass of concrete composed of cem- 
ent and fragments of tiles or stone spalls. They preferred 
opus spicatum as well as a kind of masonry where patterns of 
all kinds were produced ty horizontal bands of color or of 
colored stones. 

During the middle ages brick construction was developed in 
different ways in various parts of Europe, especially in Italy, 
southern France, bavaria, the low plains of north Cermany and 
in Holland. Only north Italy and North Germany created a true 
brick construction, the other countries having almost exclusi- 
vely employed a mixture of cut stone and bricks. 

A bond was used in Holland during the entire middle ages con- 
sisting of alternating courses of stretchers and headers, but 
the lengths of the bricks did not correspond to their widths, 
so that a regular breaking of joints was impossible in each 
second course. 

The middée portion of the wall is usually composed of rubble. 
The natural treatment is to lay alternate courses of stretchers 


ne rm 
3. rol 1 5 yradsanot {fet etait baad add nesdw bas ,eisbeed to ons 
prdT .tuo yldstinue et 19 betosise ei Xoriw astiode to 19 
Boa tL | 3syo aasaqesno to sietnavbe beblosh ef3 ean yInossu to 
a : les fe a8 bebaemmooes od of g10tetedd ei ti baw .ebaod tele 
 xfgge7 nent Buotsaes 973 pest bas eupeetutota etssags ST .dtide 
Br ren! Ba fates  ggmmosea bebnod ulxe 
ewe ae A wt esbha0% [sitatoottea edT .a 
th neue efbbts sit aniwsb been ceodt tedtie ote ebnod atsbols 
"80 dovmd beliso~o8 oft bus deilod 10 oidsoD belleo-o2 dd sit! 
oe WA \Sonssatsned sd? ni beoubortnt seoft ers 10 ,abnod detwel® 
_ ce)<° eebaod Aoold bae aacts ond 
p _ fenpe to van to besogmos 2fk yinoses Aoktd trishom ytsanrb10 
d dtywel bose dtbaeid ,eeendotds saodn anne 
iy "we? sant 0a ,tatot wdt0om edt to aviecfont .8 » 8 v ft to eno 
ated dott # to da@anef edt [aups etntot, serdt bee eaacndndaa 
a Mfad <8) spit afes siotid efonn as [few as dea0 asattenon ete 
a lente {V eretiacp .1 dignefl edt gatdem owt .H edorad 
dots ‘@ to dibiw sat Srtier owe . edotad trige yifenrt baa 0 
patina: Gnimio? sioitd edd tead of Esgnsite ef Bnod Aor doad 
(bas) erebsed 10 stefoteite ce bial ors {few edt Yo sost (ante 
2  tanenes eetwoo M¢8n sdt ni atnio, sat tevoo ayenls edotrd 19940 
= bin ont to s{qittiom s ayenia ot ellew Aotad Yo seaniotds sal 
' Bly e768 tens .sec ni sie snols elisw toiad gedt of ,dotiwd s Yo at 
Deeds Yo atatot bane ent wAotdt efotad S\E S$ .S S\P DML S\l 
ay to") ‘e(s (2D .yf7) (Lew off davordt bnetxe yfnommos aoat [lar 
|) ,Stebsed to esatanco yletttne [fsx edt to totvedat ooT .(2 .U ot 
- sdotdd eit II .(og tov) .eoet sat no vino bees gated wisdotedte - 
oo eas ,2d0i1d Med to s9edmnn neve ae afenps [len edt to seer 
q ae Qi tod {4 .@d wert) doed bane tnort mo wslinie sis seeww 
rf 3 ‘more@isbeed Yo ea1so9 & ,otantotl[s dosd bas s98t no esatwoo ed? 
i: vy  etedto ‘edd ao ersdoteits to see1sos © of anibmoqesitoo saoet 2 
qqoesm Aottd at bsan sis senote tuo to axoold attos set fea 
pad & Yo Jdgted edt Yo selqitlon od eysnle tanm etdgied ire8dt 
oe ese @tatog tastiogmi teow sd? e1s seed? .tarot tati0m att atin 
A Se -Lavene3 ai mottouitencs doied of anidtal 
Bat ‘9a .alfex to eymioet to sbaod sat asbfemoo txsn Elade sit 
Ps “tl asvigom svitetoosh edt xsen [Itw bas ,ealygne edd. te seont 
a eebaod [sigtontge sesdtd mort gnstly 
OD .4iT .baod xo0l2 .p 


@ 


ta 


A 


41 
and of headers, and when the (end joints fall together, a long- 
er or shorter brick is selected or ‘is suitably cut. This kind 
of masonry has the decided advantage of cheapness over all re- 
gular bonds, and it is therefore to be recommended as a make- 
shift. It appears picturesque and less pretentious than regul- 
arly bonded masonry. 
ae The structural Bonds. 

Modern bonds are either those used during the middle ages, 
like the so-called Gothic or Polish and the So-called Dutch or 
Flemish bonds, or are those introduced in the Renaissance, as 
the cross and block bonds. 

Ordinary moder brick masonry is composed of bricks of equal 
dimensions, whose thickness, breadth and length haye proporti- 
ons of 1°: 2°: 4, inclusive of the mortar joint, so that four 
thicknesses and three joints equal the lengbhh of a brick. Bats 
are sometimes used as well as whole bricks as in Fig. 44; half 
bricks H, two making the length L, quarters V, three-quarters 
D, and finally split bricks K, two making the width of a brick. 
Fach brick bond is arranged to that the bricks forming the ex- 
ternal face of the wall are laid as stretchers or headers, and 
upper bricks always cover the joints in the next course beneath. 

The thickness of brick walls’is always a multiple of the wid- 
th of a brick, so that brick walls alone are in use, that are 
1/2, 1, 11/2, 2, 2 1/2 bricks thick. The end joints of the 
wall face commonly extend through the wall (Fig. 45, a). (Not 
in U. 8). The interior of the wall entirely consists of headers, 
stretchers being used only on the face. (Not so). If the thick- 
ness of the wall equals an even number of half bricks, the co- 
urses are similar on front and back (Fig. 45, b}; but if uneven, 
the courses on face and back alternate, a course of headers on 
one face corresponding to a course of stretchers on the other. 

If terra cotta blocks or cut stones are used in brick masonry, 
their heights must always be multiples of the height of a brick 
with its mortar joint. These are the most important points re- 
lating to brick construction in general. 

We shall next consider the bonds of facings of walls, then 
those at the angles, and will seek the decorative motives res- 
ulting from these structural bonds. 

a. Block Bond. Fig. 46. 


> ee 7 6 OY oe | nee ee a7 re” A aon _ [ Pe Ane A oD PU ee al 
a : “i, cy ioe a ; / i 


‘ Sd 
a hs 69 8 8 8 emefoe aft of 3ntbto008 begmetts si baod sat 
Bete “asvo etantetie arsbaed bue aradoterta Ile to adntol bas edt 
a. | sffe Yo etatencs [fse edd to tnenels [sottiev yne ‘1eAto foes 
spat oat to notertvih saptido mA .eisbseed baw easdotents stenie 
‘4 om addyds edt sno [sotitev 2 bos .p oO - HO MdsYgs ont eso 
ny eee etoloo tnorsttib yd bedeiorniderh eis edortd ont TT. + - + 
rape etnomele Lactsiev gasetza02 amtot bnod sag YD .32%) 
to adotad dtitw yllenogsib bea) .escsqetetar ttel ste dotnw ae 
| enosttod st .woteye tom # ofni begnedo et bnod end .a1r0foo ond 
iy annedteg evtteioceh to sbutition e enoitoeir&® Lanozesb ona Let 
eam tmersttib to exorid to eeu sad yd bsowbory oo yen 
Chigens: -bnog enon? .B 
| ernoe ateares it to atetanoo bnod eso edd baod doold sav axikl 
 atedoteite Yo etntol: bas eff tad .stedotette base ersbesd to cee 
* +e ab bana eatoos diiot forss ar [aotttoy somes edd ot emoo xine 
i, eam odd to nofaivib enptido ent .atabsed Yo s8tg09 bnoose does 
ay @ eed eno L[eotstev edt brs . os oo smedos sdt awollot yanoe 
me "gp bebte201 sd yen brod etine sdT ~~ ~ + + eH + + UdSYdY ead 
Pe “sbefitt e1s alsvistat beqade eso019 seodx ,meteys Jom Tanogerbd & 
;  =noo baod efit ,enoitoertd [snobetbh 10 I[etnostiod ,Leorsxav ot 
ia feom eit of seats aevitS #1 .ceetwoo anritade ylazem to asvere 
nA So seviton siitl-ten to edii-boed ,entetteq evitartooab bariev 
Ba) pe MR RN | oa(O@ .BkF) ebnrd [ie 
| ewe 24 @ .3f%) .bnod detfod 10 offto? .y 
900 foes at naa ib Sat bos evedotatte ayolqre arat 
> @neusis fastsrev 2 +5 5 2 U2 ensdoe edt of yntbiocos 921 
“smaoh edt atin noteivtbh supiide eds .- + - #- + atdyar edt aad 
| Meoisaee nl eaddgnsl to begoqmoo yleritne gated = - - - - ely 
Ve  apentl dneutanoo y{s10qg ofnt bebkvid ed yem bnod eft notdosiih 
= toodtin tedio doses rt dotde ,stnenele eoataue 
_ paMOO: bedosted ofnt nortostsb [sort1ev 10 Ievnostiod 4 nt cele 
- ete entetteq dotdw ni ,asteye ten & Cink yilenogatrb +o ese 
Mle wS¢ .i¢ <eRfT tovenistiag sit ai as eratasn statages yd bsoub . 
— fomm09 benottnen od bilwuote yteitev 6 .bnod ofntod sad aabined 
iS — bol{so~o8 of% ,ynsmieD Ation ai nottouttanco dots mt 
does rf tebeed eno diiw stanistls axedoterte ond sisdin ,bnod 
a ePEFL0D 
aii dota yiesv s soubo1g eabnod t9dto bas Laveethsn seoal 
ee gonbrerh ylertins ete dofidw ,. anisdteq soativa [atnenento to 


emedt to sno doas r)0t 


42 

The bond is arranged according to the scheme 2UUUBA, 
the end joints of all stretchers and headers alternate over 
each other’ any vertical element of the wall consists of alt- 
ernate stretchers and headers. An oblique division of the face 
has the rpythm - uu - uo, and a vertical one the rhythm + - 
+ —- + +, If the bricks are distinguished by different colors | 
(Fig. 47, the bond forms congruent vertical elements a, betwe- 
en which are left interspaces. Used diagonally with bricks of 
two colors, the bond is changed into a net systen. In horizon- 
tal and diagonal directions a multitude of decorative pattenrs 
may be produced by the use of bricks of different colors (Fig.48). 

B. Choss fond. 

Like the block bond the cross bond consists of alternate cour- 
ses of headers and stretchers, but the end joints of stretchers 
only come in the same vertical in each fourth ‘course and ine 
each second ‘course of headers. The oblique division of the ma- 
sonry follows the scheme uuus8a, and the veftical one has t 
the rhythm + + #4 + + - -. The entre bond may be regarded as 
a diagonal net system, whose cross shaped ‘intervals are filled. 
In vertical, horizontal or diagonal directions, this bond con- 
sista of merely abutting courses. It sives rise to the most 
varied decorative patterns, band-like or net-like motives of 
all kinds (Fig. 50). 

y. Cothic or Polish Bond. (Fig. 51. 

This employs stretchers and headers alternating in each con- 
rse according to the scheme 2 5 2 5 ¥ 5° a vertical ebement 
has the rhythm + -.¢ -.+ -, the oblique division with the form- 
ula - --- - being entirely composed of lengths. In a vertical 
direction the bond may be divided into purely congruent linear 
surface elements, which fit each other without leaving interv- 
als; in a horizontal or vertical direction into detached cour~ 
ses or diagonally into a net system, in which patterns are pro- 
duced by separate headers as in the patterns of Figs. 51, 52. 

Besides the Gothic bond, a variety should be mentioned common 
in brick construction in north Germany, the so-called Wendish 
bond, where two stretchess alternate with one header in each 
course. 

These mediaeval and other bonds produce a very rich variety 
of ornamental surface DA PREPARED , which are entirely dis*inct 


for each one of then. 


Eb 
(ee e893) .bnod dermoelt .4 
3 Ep nesnces bnod fotad beatat yitosttsont ei Paod deiael? edt 
NM te es@etnos wbasifol ag ste1 bas motgie? mt sag nommoo ni er 
bod otsso% mt eee190> to bre etebeed to eseim09 ynitanted Le 
sot ong dtiw abtooos bod eidd to tnsmehastie [sottiey saT 
ne oO 0-9 = midydt edd ead motetvrh auotide eff ~~ + - + ~ + ei 
8 82sdotesta to se21s0o bnoosa doses to stnio, ons ent .- oo wb 
aT erento fises asvo sil eiesbeed to seigo0oo Smosee doses to bre 
+ ff fneurgnco yleim to efetanco baod atdt notteetth [sorttev 2 
 dtiw yiletnostiod ;elavistnt tuodsin stnemets sostisa wse8nil 
ss gaot tix mateys ten 8 to yllanonetb bas ,esets00 betosteh 
—-‘fatnemanto weifuoeg escubo1y setwedal bnod afd? .sencem bageds 
ve — bas y{nommoo faom sno edt ei baod doole .enissisy 
oA he eYInoaen mi boyol gue 
| gataeiadds 0 #avoooe no baod doold asd? teym0o1te 2k baod arom 
t omens ab brod otdtoD satntot sdt to nottanietis toasts 
gor madd dtynette aeol ead bas elfaw sfddo1 to sgaiost 10% 
-_benoqsos baod 6 es si{ddor antoet tot book ee tom ei bra ,baod 
oe ,(b2 .3f%) sting nit gnitentstis eisbasd ons eisdoteate Yo 
aos to gntiosd adé dtin bnod sysule tedseg0t esatcoo ows send 
~~  dotds Aokad sno alfew tot bees ylno et bnod dotnd olen 
~envedteq yitotite eis ebaod [atstontts to eaoitanoosb sat 
BnEDIOOOA .yIshiowms telt to sezodt of Saoqsst109 eyswle Jedd 
~em 903 ,eynibliod wet # at nese [fite bontem dotuC blo sas oF 
| ret seokievy to abasd bea arebiod yd bststooeb ek yInee 
- ie etiseti bod edt mort signet doidw .(¢2 .2i7) 
 g6 tenteze to [en & to efyne edt Je setentiniss haod a ti 
oe neghebe ed di Yi teat Jnabive et tt ,tedmem L[aqwdoet sors 
“statot, Bae mynotdt) (d2 .ar8),2 © .b oO do @ esntl sat no yf 
a edt *# bertupst sd [fin eisad astisup ,(edottd to eettaso 
10908 beanerts od (ftw ae f3a8 ent .T bnod doold sdt Yo se20 a! 
edt to soneteth sat of anrbrooos ndtyia antwolfot easy oF Sah 
qd aterrenp Rnivoneh ;t © .f o .d & Btnrol ent mort tien Stes 
“no 2) yd etoted efodw bas E yd eaxsttenp serds .S yd eevisd I 
aoe. SL tenor Shs bo ent! no 3 Pb Lf od a ons 
 €8S 2S OS £8 .d sw sat! no -aninol lot edt gevrz II baod esaoxo 
<tve tise tsi Greil ten ESL LES bo onti ao 
boe .sidiesog se gno1te se sham 9d biuode eslans oft tant ined 
 +yaofgne se bebtove od blvode aXoiad siiqa to eissiesp Yo seu ents 


43 
8. Flemish Bond. (Fig. 53). 

The Flemish bond is incorrectly termed Dutch bond because it 
‘4s ‘in common use in Belgium and rare in Holland, conissts of 
alternating courses of headers and of courses ‘in Bothic bond. 

The vertical arrangement of this bond accords with the form—- 
ula + - + - + =, its oblique division has the rhythm - uuda_a - 
uuu-. The end joints of each second course of stretchers a 
and of each second ‘course of headers lie over each other. In 
a vertical direction this bond consists of purely congruent 1 
linear surface elements without intervals; horizontally with 
detached courses, and diagonally of a net system with ‘cross 
shaped meshes. This bond likewise produces peculiar ornamental 
patterns. Block bond is the one most commonly and generally 
employed in masonry. 

Cross bond is stronger than block bond on account of the ‘more 
perfect alternation of the joints. Gothic bond is chiefly used 
for facings of rubble walls and has less strength than cross. 
bond, and is not as good for facing rubble as a bond composed 
of stretchers and headers alternating in pairs (Fig. 54), so 
that two courses together always bond with the backing of the 
wall. Dutch bond is only ssed for walls one brick thick. 

The decorations of structural bonds are strictly patterns, 
that always correspond to those of flat embroidery. According 
to the old Dutch method still seen in a few buildings, the ma- 
sonry is decorated by borders and bands of varioss patterns 
(Fig. 55), which result from the bond itself. 

If a bond terminates at the angle of a wall or against an 
architectural member, it is evident that if it be cut vertical- 
ly on the lines a b, c d, e f,(Fig. 56) (through end joints of 


centres of bricks), quarter bats will be required a* the angles. 


In case of the block bond I, the angles will be arranged accor- 
ding to the following Bhythm, according to the distance of the 
left half from the joints a b, cd, e f; denoting quarters by 

1, halves by 2, three quarters by 3 and abole bricks by 4; on 
line at, 1414; on line cd, 2121; one f, 121 2. The 
cross bond IT gives the following. on line a b, 212321 23; 
on ‘Hine ic 4, 2:3 2:1 2:3; one f, ‘12/1 :4'1 2) “it ‘is: sedt ayee 
dent that the angles should be made as strong as possible, and 
the use of ‘quarters or split bricks should be avoided at angles; 


bh 


 gwott somateth emoe te beosla aniesd sdoiid tilde bane aietaeup 

_wems0o yd begnetts o1s IT bas I eseso ni ebnod saT .slane eas 
Bren -—% 9 baa 6 o .d 8 esntf edt of Qntbiccoe ,ewollot en es 
> emis ts 69 | ds = 


fide ei 22 e228 Se@o 2 

aah bs ns haat baad 

i SBN e'6¢ 5 eset 

| boas baat bpas 
ae ee ; a ei 

Pe vei. wy S652 goes ERS s 

| anoto oth PAS ba DBE bea: 

MiegiieerS SS I SE S:8 ech 

Bobo baat baae 


| atid kefyne sat mort aiotad difye bne evetisep edd antvomsy 
. begns11s eg Ifiw Snod ont ~eiad w9dteup seidt gd mead anroalyer 


ama etit 6: 7 ~:smedoe sniwollot edt of kaibrooor 
Reser es (28 Ng ee) a8 ; wy 
aS = esos Lt Se Sek 
oy eee giane } 8S BRD E- BRA? 
Luan wear © SS € z Ks Ss Hee 
nan on 2 ae BODIB E heaS 
| Aa oli 
wr esse Sif s S$sseé 
bass | SEN SbhSadS 
ae SAS S'S S&S 
ene peo Db BD hbaeé hb 8 Ob 


bentsl{qxus yltese ai smedoa otmatyda eid? to yskisrinosg eat 
+ sat mort bovome1 yl[no ton ste stedtsHup sat tadt Jost eds yd 
mom edatol has ont dneverg of aoist od teow 9189 tod ,esiine 
i yee ih ssea7g0o Sasosi bs ar weshtezot Anisor 

ae yond TI) .ytsamoteno er b oventi no tsd# qlno sbnod sesdt tc 
a =e {ftw baod sda Yo séqtont1q edt ,esdgan sagie te niot eller 
asefo abnetxs syents [fen sno .7 bas A sencoo hose ai teds 22 
0A’ .(F (A VG -B£T) St tentays etode doidw ,redto sit agnor 
‘edt ,ebnod sat gattaniniss to esbom aatbheossq 943 of Batbi0s 
-ymem ae sd events yam stedt tedt o1 Oetneti1e 94 oF ors asians 
eeednoidd edd nie adoicd tied es ségne edt te etsd astisup sends 
been s19% t9d1H0p seTdt eno tod Yi tot . (Te .3iT) [Lew eas Yo 


44 
hence each course commences at the angle with at least halves, 
‘quarters and split bricks being ‘placed at some distance ‘from 
the angle. The bonds in cases I and II are arranged by ‘cours- 
es as follows, according to the lines ab, cd and e f:- 


I. ab ome | ef 
1 2422 2.272: 72 £12422 
4444 1444 2444 
112u2a2 2 HQZH2 des212 22 
4444 1444 2444 
TI. 
R222 22 32 2 dow? w2.t2 
1444 3444 2444 
2.212 72 a2 222 dir 2e2 
3444 1444 4444 


Removing the quarters and split bricks from the angles, ‘or 
replacing them bg three quarter bats, the bond will be arranged 
according to the following scheme:- 


BD ab od e f 
3:12 02°2 212212 3222 
4444 3444 2444 
3°22 2 222 32 3:22:22 
4444 3 414 4 2444 

II. : 
3222 2 e202 2 3 25 
4444 2244 4244 
3222 282-208 32:22 
4244 3444 — 4444 


The peculiarity of this rhythmic scheme “is easily explained 
by the fact that the quarters are not only removed ‘from the 
angles, but care must be taken to prevent two end joints from 
coming together ‘in adjacent courses. 

Of these bonds only that on line c d is customary. If two 
walls join at right angtes, the ‘principée of the bond will al- 
be that in each course A and B, one wall always extends clear 
through the other, which abuts against it (Fig. 57, A, B). Ac- 
cording to the preceding ‘modes of terminating the bonds, the 
angles are to be arranged ro that there may always be as many 
three quarter bats at the angte as half bricks ‘in the thicnkess 
of the wall (Fig. 57), for if but one three quarter were used 


ae) Veer a ee oe pot? ae hd A te POY en. eae 
Pee ae eee ee Oey ‘ae ae, 
' ad ? | qs a 


, en 

Pye “yeetn0 t8beed edt nt atotid slodw ont yd benoffot efgns edd 12 

erent dedt ,betelotv ed bluow ebnod act efor L[eqronintg odd 

oF Pipes [few edt nguotas ws8lo bnetxe bloode etatot 
1808p" ‘eondd to bsetant beew stew edotid tilqe bas eietiasp t1 

| -tocoe nsec entwolfot ef% ot sgaedo SIvow Snod sat ,adad 98 


Oe? a @:% 9 eatf edt of anrh 
oe Sie brod asoth bnod xoolg 
Ota es 2a Sars ® 
SBS bo ¢ bh 
Me ry: Bo Ext" Sv@.aes 
gunn: iy ea Ce bb ga 


ss ggoto nT 282 .kiY vi ee bnod Aoold nt stentet{s seetn0o ant 
ss wksd eiedio oft .02 .2f7 nt mwone as ef eetp00 Adig0t sad baod 
ere 2, ebnod Asold ak ea Yn 

‘edn of Bnibiooos [[ew eft to torredat edt nt 2etisv bod sal 
8 to efodw s to afqitinn 6 er [few edd to exoendorat edd a9M 
% besaktnoo ri se1g09 dose tent ofqtonizg say boa ,don1d Bled 
at yg eit yvletenistis [few sat to seamdoing stiine edd aguords 
ebtod esoto mk bentatey yltoiate 

“90% yino been ylisqgotq ets doide sobnod detmsf[%- One ofdtod sl 
.18s8io baod sdt to mdtyds edt sien of Seorttrd fon ai 3k .agrtost 


qdoted - ferbash otdto> 

F Seiiew Gs SD Chagan Sas 
agers S&S SE bSebS € BS DE 
wee daesee SB Shea SubsS@ 
Peedtey S82 € BSbhaSsE BS De 


| ~IS0D ee1it ddix eolnas sdt te consamoo of beitsteag ek dr tI 
atdt eiam of tlwortteb ton ef tk ,eovied Yo bastent ated as2 
i esbnod detmslt bnspokstod nf aknedo 

eviteroosh sit of soneistey ai btse aeed vbserf[s sed tent 
" ‘samdotsd of oldsoifqqs t1sq af ei ytnoaem relies to dasutsert 
| seven aso etdt etnousfe att to avenifers edt mo1t tad ,yis08 
_ ten s stil tedés1 105 ,dégastse sender to nokeaengm£ edt svity 
| a epee yi ylilidertenequt to eebr ont ateszaua Aron 
_ e@intot sbiw yllanottioqo1g ett bas atoold [lems ati to aortosn 

_ -beesd ers abnod [arstovise sit Yo etnsibsgxe svisetoosb sal 
teeta sd% .S getolooetaststiib to siorad Yo aa0 adt ,f ~:noge 
base notioeto7q sat ,€ seefyne ont ts bnod adt to sonentmorty +12 
_- %o eeendtordt oft pentetied bas aioti stateqes to notessaged 
eeelane ett ta baod sat yd beteotbar od yam Ilew oat 


45 
at the angle followed by two whole bricks in the header ‘course, 
the ‘principal rule for bonds would be violated, that the end 
‘joints should extend clear through the wall. 
If quarters and split bricks were used instead of three quar- 
ter bats, the bond would ichange to the followins' rhythm, accor- 
ding to the line e f:e 


Block ‘bond ross bond 
22 2:14:22 
A244 4244 
SiZeene eikiaee 
4244 4444 


The courses alternate in block bond as ir Fig. 58. In cross 
bond the fourth course is as shown in Fig. 59, the others bei- 
ng as in block bond. | 

The bond varies in the interior of the wall according to whe- 
ther the thickness of the wall-is a multiple of a whole or a 
half brick, and the principle that each course ‘i1) ‘continued t 
through the entire thickness of the wall alternately is not 
strictly retained in cross bond. 

In Cothic and Flemish bonds shich are ‘properly used only for 
facings, it is not difficult to make the rhythm of the bond clear. 


Gothic Wendish Dutch 
4242 442442 4242 
3424 224424 3222 
4242 442442 4242 
32424 324424 32222 


If it is preferred to commence at the angles with three quar- 
ter bats instead of halves, it is not difficult to make this 
‘change ‘in Cothicsand Flemish bonds. 

What has already been said ‘in reference to the decorative 
treatment of ashlar masonry is in part applicable to brick ma- 
sonry, but from the smallness of its elements this can never 
give the impression of robust strength, bat rather like a net- 
aork suggests the idea of impenetrability by the intimate,.con- 
nection of its small blocks and its proportionally wide joints. 

The decorative expedients of the structural bonds are based 
upon:- 1, the use of bricks of different colors; 2, the great- 
er prominence of the bond at the angles; 3, the projection and 
depression of separate bricks and patterns; the thickness of 
the wall may be indicated by the bond at its angles. 


| ab 

nt eomet, 2.2 momt & .2tU ak mwode [law snote ond slit 

| mo efensq boatar dtin betowatenos sd yer elfen xotad 3207 

di edt Ot Detice antettaq ni tedso eft no elsneqg anue bas shie 
Prentectons: dora S\r foot S\l akoyflekosges. .(00).2L7) ebnod 

“gorwd edt to tueq s .yllsntt .avoiad edd gnitioo suodtiw alize 

a! atsq oi es nego stef sd yeu antedteq af betuoexe allen 

| ebro ofa tigit bnatis to nokesinbs tot sesaiit ,ef{len nebrea 
ane ea{lew midd dttw egntbiied yeast 
ey sehn08 sviteioos .d 

Bi rékerntcas Scubiehwa tty ylertine efqtoniaq {esetonite sad ned 

_— svtestoosb hbeivay teow ect .eifen to euntort bas elansg suvoitev 


ive 
et dose act egntoet as bean sd yam yort joldteeog emooad sbnod 


OO sepgd eavind jetednetp! to bie edt ctiw beod evitourseaoo 
edt. dnodsiw io dsin betooezs ed: ysm yods ylisnrt bas ,atoire 
Be obi | estotid bsreloo 160 duo to bra 
wong to efdeqso ,baod {stnemento yleimd to xret sasfqata sal 
 Seeddtde nt (23 .3t7) esdt et entetiey beitev teom on? gatoub 
[ante syfno tadt oe aevisd ond ys besalqes ef tesoterte dose 
ey  .ffex sdf to sost odt no e1s9eqga bed to bard 
- amsdaye qow eutt miot ebrod evidaiovsh to s2tise eittne nA 
Las PEGS 2829) tone 10° tao e716 adottd edt t9dsadn ot antoroDD8 
— (snr 8X\e of S\f) beord os qileasnes ots Atowdoitd nt adntol 
| flew eds Yo sonetesyqae [antetxe edt no sononlinkg tkadt test 
 nataton om yond? eflaw to ebnti wstied sdt mI .bebkosh yrev ai 
) =04q taorettib. yateu ,tnemso 10 1st1om antnsbisd yynowwe Adin 
tonne aren od? .(23 .gf7) sgonstemsosio of yntbioocs sol it 
 yeiptad: [fena ytev to oan sad yd bestietosiedo ef baalfok to 
dont: 8\I asat s10om ton etnies [eottrev yatved yw as [Low es 
 aeds ot bebrow qiinterse yiev sie sino, bad ead eliaw coeds 
 \ 9) Sevtdiw ttel evyewls ots dna ,xotdt dont 3\@ ess .b Slttorg 
matron edt toloo of ynsae? oi yrssoteno need ylfeuen asd sl 
& ed yam 10f69 to enot betiesd yne teat o8 .Sf Qnien stoted 
P ‘baa adoind edt to woloo edt to exsen yt [eveneg nt [fawn and of 
7 _ tofoornedors & to yifenen ete siorid eat .tedt0om sid to sats 
i | gefoty 10 nesta dtin .ettdw wollsy ,bot .dosld ,nnotd Xiah 
| .°$gatasqwoo tor ysinetioggo ne ead teva0dh .yniselg yd benteddo 
a -\efftw eeritleool sneiettib ta yrmoesm betnosxe ylintets ent 
_ —-- PatsegIs etntol to Aousen ot tae ylissa 10 Stine s Jedd sore 
* tine ets efntol datad .tofoo isveb 8 Yo exe edottd sat neae teod 


Bh 


46 

Like the stone wall shown in Fig. 43 from S. James in Regens- 
burg, brick walls may be constructed nith raised panels on one 
side and sunk panels on the other in patterns suited to the b 
bonds (Fig. 60), especially in 1/2 to 1 1/2 brick enclosing w 
walls without ‘cutting the bricks. finally, a part of the brick 
walls executed in patterns may be left open as in parapets, ¢ 
garden walls, friezes for admission of air and light ‘into ord- 
‘inary buildings with thin walls. | 

b. Decorative Bonds. 

When the structural principle entirely disappears as in the 
various panels and ficings of walls, the most ‘varied decorative 
bonds become possible; they may be used as facings for each 
constructive bond with the aid of quarters, halves and split 
bricks, and finally they may be executed with or without the 
aid of cat or colored bricks. 

The simplest form of purely ornamental bond, capable of :pro- 
ducing the most varied patterns, ‘is that (Fig. 61) in which e 
each stretcher is replaced by two halves so that only a single 
kind of bed appears on the face of the wall. 

An entire series of decorative bonds form true wep systems 
according to whether the ‘bricks are cut or uncut (Fig. 63). 

Joints ‘in brickwork are generally so broad (1/8 to 5/8 in.) 
that their influence on the external appearance of the wall 
is very decided. In the better kinds of walls they are pointed 
with strongly hardening mortar or cement, using different pro- 
files according to circumstances (Fig. 64). The modern masonry 
of Holland is characterized by the use of very small bricks, 
as well as by having vertical joints not more than 1/8 inch 
thick while the bed joints are very carefully worded to the p 
profile d, are 5/8 inch thick, and are always left white. 

It has usually been customary in Fermany to color the mortar 
before using it, so that any desired tone of color may be given 
to the wall in general by means of the color of the bricks and 
thai of the mortar. The bricks are usually of a broken color, 
dark brown, ‘black, red, yellow, white, with green or violet 
obtained by glazing. Whoever has an opportunity of comparing 
the carefully executed masonry nf different localities witl 
agree that a white or nearly white network of joints appears 
best when the bricks are of a dark:color. Dark joints are suit- 


i ee ow! 


Wa Ss ee yee eee St 1 Ree 
‘ee ; A ie 7 er eal 


ie VS 
ss mabretems to esenod isblo ed? .edotad tdarl ytev aot sidstiue 
| \-eflakbbet gosb [feo on a8 ,nword-teeq 10 dosld to tlrud eto» 
) Sgk-dI -ottdy diel eayents o19n atnio, ent tod ,edoiad mos 
as ebsm ek seapod waools dowe Yo tosges sat tadd oldetnedau 
Mews’ 1 eatntot edt yd eldtesog ed yaa es gniesaly 
-noisqeoxs Be ,Atonsoiid YI yincesn asides to nolistiang sat 
-Yo miset off at agnoled ,sonseetsned narfadl oa3 nt enob elie 
HP a A S898 C0) 
: Aho -(ooonut2) -efIaW to anisetesiy L[antetad .€ 
-it 9 1Ot Raiweveo Zaitostoig @ ef Qniretesly L[eniatxea sonrZ 
-09 8 as betes1t ed ot ef TE ,yTMOASem Horrid tot 10 siddwa yisn 
get Yo ehnet ati baa .btow sdd Yo sense sams saz nk aniisv 
~Lisdint {fh .ytnosss to tnebnegebar yleiisne Tdguoa sd oF ek 
eas .tsties nk 10 betnkeq tedtedw.dtoniorw Sane aslidea to eno 
" enoesest erat tot ealdenottoetio y{bebioad 
as moiter009b sit tot dbeyolqme sd yan ted? etnsrbeqxs salt 
9082 eBntInieqg dae stetginor Yo seodd 918 Bniretastq. [antetxa 
oo) baa ttoa & gnied ,hbedste yoeetls es tua-nr0t of egnofsad oo 
ae e250 oxsteata 
“xe. pebeananeh to ameem wsdotg sdt ak ATOHn OODutA srotetedl 
~$o gnteofone edt .aleaneg ofni soietvirs « yt gaftetealy Iennet 
',setesiq 10 tnemeo ni’ etnemanio betteant ,2anibloom yd eloney 
=988 edt tant moktitbnoo edt dtiw ylno Jud .eldseermbe ara Lie 
boos Yo to enotea Yo seodt steading wsdtien yam earct Yo esr 
of betive [few at apan tiog odd wi 3atatonk 16 Bntqmete (1A 
‘Yo sotesstyqrr to) nofktgiisenr ead ‘ieristen sd¢ to saaten edt 
yd to agnidoted yi sostioe sdt to Iasasesi1s 8b0% & ,atnomagio 
 pbasory blak .gattnteq suxt yd 10 of ftYetge WW .gainedguor 
aedgeaig odt ot betqabs ste [le .etrsg avokiey Yo gnip{re poe 
| »\eidereteotq af cuptootinors feotlodmye ons betatag A .sostise 
», hipaa tonnes miot to yelq eert © tod notteating om ak fords 
Te stoctar00eb stetes{[y to nismob sad mort bebe 
| hecoas :{arens: ak seogisg [etneaueom on savise Bnrietesls 
70 boft19q edt to etesd sit sot yslq sett # absolts Sr stot 
q -noeset aids wot tod ,foatdpe edt of eub taadt to Leubtviont 
" -Sidtearog 28 18st se estotouate Istnarenom wort beboeloxs ed sawn 
~ireq"{tatgiq bas yintweg” sdt to ematisdisd yosm edd to and 
oat af eboassqqserh Jey Jon send softer Dne hetgobs sx taad bo 
et eaeiaT .axoloo a aviv Atowiokid bas enote too Yo antsnseag 


i 
aa 
brs! 
Me 


47 
suitable for very light bricks. The older houses of Amsterdam 
were built of black or peat-brown, as we call deep reddish- 
brown bricks, but the joints were always left white. It is. 
undeniable that the aspect of such gloomw houses is made as 
pleasing as may be possible by the joints. 

The imitation of ashlar masonry by brickwork, as exception- 
ally done in the Italian Renaissance, belongs ‘in the realm of 
Nonsense. 

3. External plastering of Walls. (Stucco). 

Since external plastering ‘is a protecting ‘covering for ordi- 
nary rubble or for brick masonry, it is to be treated as a co- 
vering in the true sense of the word, and its range of form 
‘is to be sought entirely independent of masonry. All -imitati- 
ons of ashlar and brickwork,whether painted or in relief, are 
decidedly objectionable for this reason. 

The expedients that may be employed for the decoration of 
external plastering are those of sculpture and painting. Stuc- 
co belongs to form-art as already stated, being a soft and 
plastic mass. 

Therefore stucco work:is the proper means of decorating ex- 
ternal plastering by a division into panels, the enclosing of 
panels by mouldings, inserted ornaments ‘in cement or plaster, 
all ara admissible, but only with the condition that the ser- 
‘ies of forms may neither imitate those of stone or of wood. . 

All stamping or ‘incising in the soft :mass is well suited to 
the nature of the material: the ‘inscription or impression of 
ornaments, a rude treatment of the sarface by hatching or by 
roughening, by sgraffito or by true painting, gold grounds 
and gilding of various parts, all are adapted to the plaster 
surface. A painted and symbolical architecture is preferable, 
ahich “ig no imitation but a free play of form:cannot be excl- 
uded from the domain of plaster decoration. | 

Plastering serves no monumental purpose ‘in general; there- 
fore it affords a free play for the taste of the period or 
‘individual or that due to the subject, but for this reason 
must be excluded from monumental structures as far as possible. 

One of the many barbarisms of the “periwig and pigtail” peri- 
od, that we adopted and shich has not yet disappeared, is the 
painting of cut stone and brickwork with oil colors. This is 


Oe ee 
ri , 7 i i f d ' | 


0 34 taun moi LINES tesl sat to eeitibiqtenr sat to eno 
leases ‘si? tedt tegzot ton bivote sx tud ,enssm [fs yd bseoq 
— nt a8 ,dnemyolevsh to ezete teonol att at sense 
- t89 ‘om eeennselo edt ni tas stom nese ,oifing iarens) ead 


| 2 “ hoadite sotted at tasersy atebom ad? peepee ry 
 antges tas ,tee710% teontt edt yi nant aselgog to snnsva 1s 
m3 tf batinem tot se aid rot sesnteon bas tabdi08 Ativ 
ba #0033 ent tad? ,dntoy gatnargsd erat ge commie ad dedT 


! Dt leseens! daom sno ekds broysd anaq wsven mao .e19hnel Loe 
ace fo evol atdt rwebienco fenm oe tito sat no tad baad ano 
 tooddtw ,oktedtae anted yiles1 ae siaosq ak easntasa bane 19 
a NS that ann ‘oldiesogms ellarsmeR si tre oF nortetiaxe yas soit 
‘on sis eletreten sniblicd eldslievs edt et9de esitio yaam al 
hh carcumeree ei{dternog ylooreoe metto ai ti ,enosnszomod ylsorsce 
eae ‘$4 to tofoo [stoten sid tedd ,2noatey bstsoube neve sontv 
_ ytofoo: ynool2 yidteasog bos welogemt ati Yo#etiqe ai ,{aineten 
eset 9a? eheoneidseetge ni -aoloo [to to jaoo mtoting 8s alsoxe 
—p Be eaentese bas ashto to moidingooss edt af toat erat vo0Ot neo 
hud RLS | -enos1eg saodt yd ytueed to nonad & 
-2em Yo enottstoosh [stern vierrttes Sas tnetrogmgr tated eA 
:, es Ifer as etodones [fan moti nortasm of aved ylisntt an ,yine 
mo, Bagot gnisd wemtot 949 ,.o%s .antetnel ,eteaned tot erablod 
osotenees edt no astdel edt? ,beelfor ar senon Slo preva dsonle 
eee edtine anoeuT bas siotod .enere bas somsyol® to 
and aie dotdx .Sntt afdt to sitow [utedeet 3ntagiasbd nt rwsito 
 eiaden to tnaatsstt bentte1 2 to alsbom sutt es bedgsoosn od 
Seg Rah we -alfeW mebaow 2 
4 - affen gaits) edéyanm elfew meboow ,nortooitancs od Ratbtooos 
| Yo 10 atedntd {s0tt10v 10 fatnositod to betouttenco seott siti 
Sq .eifew bisod to enoititrsy ylewsa od yem yedt 10 ,eirel 
easoitial to esinsq ,seteeolone Jsiofy yo 245 
mM ba eetadmit [atnostied to csroqgoo allah.» 
ae ‘1 oeredmrt wslpynetoes to agof Savor to tLicd sis eflaw dowd 
om  -gsoiveto Gin wsdtis ,as{ana edd fa tedto 1989 Banto of biel 
ats edt bo abede bas entad yea sdt nk es med? nseuted stof 
 -abas saT .tootqg 19Mteew Soe baie ete teat allen. arot of tc 
er yo eelgne sit te alfiex sat bnoysd tosiowg siedmit ead Yo 


ey i 
ae 


ave 


2 - a 
oe 


i 


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= 


ia 


48 
one of the insipidities of the last century, which must be op- 
posed by all means, but we should not forget that the esthetic 
sense ‘in its lowest stage of development, as in the case of t 
the general public, sees more art in the cleanness of appear- 
ance and in regular and symmetrical arrangement, than in the 
picturesque; the modern peasant is better pleased by a regul- 
ar avenue of poplars than by the finest forest, art begins | 
“ith order and neatness for him as for mankind in general. 
That he remains at this beginning point, that the great pub- 
lic of cities as well as of entire nations, like the modern 
Hollanders, can never pass beyond this, one must lament on 
one hand, but on the other we must consider this love of ord- 
er and neatness in people as really being esthetic, without . 
mhich any exaltation to art is generally impossible. 

In many cities where the available building materials are 
scarcely homogeneous, it is often scarcely possible to con- 
vince even educated persons, that the natural color of the 
material, in spiteiiof its irregular and possibly gloony color, 
excels a uniform coat of oil color in agreeableness. The reas- 
on for this fact is the recognition of order and neatness as 
a canon of beauty by those persons. 

4s being ‘important and entirely useful decorations of mas- 
onry, we finally have to mention iron wall anchors as well as 
holders for banners, lanterns, etc., the former being found on 
almost every old house in Holland, the latter on the palaces 
of Florence and Siena. Dutch and Tuscan smiths vied with each 
other in designing tasteful works of this kind, which are to 
be accepted as true models of a refined treatment of metal. 

4, Wooden Walls. 

According to construction, wooden walls may be bearing walls 
like those constructed of horizontal or vertical timbers or of 
planks, or they may be merely partitions or board walls, pali- 
ngs or picket enclosures, panles or lattices. 

Os -Walls coppose? of horizontal timbers. 

Such walls are built of round logs or rectangular timbers 
laid to cross each other at the angles, either with crevices 
left between them as in the hay barns and sheds od the Alps, 
or to form walls that are wind and weather proof. The ends 
of the timbers project beyond the walls at the angles or may 


ae Pee, 
etre : 


Ch 

ee es{znes sit te sldietv Snod edd Qatiem ,dawlt Tio tuo sd 

 gaedt Yo tnentsert ofteddes edt 1tot sxtnstbheqxs svidsioosb anal 
‘Yo esostine to atntot sag teddies gaivise ot tatenoo eflaw gol 
oo. ~eredmis adt to ebas anitosio1wg- ens oale -etedmsd eft 
Naeem nedn ,yifent? ;ebns to 283be .eelkns gable "oO amotiod 
ee neve. ebeatnemeanto tleati ak bnod efans sdt tostorg ton ob ebue 
a  faenottqeoxs nt Snuot af allen done to tasateats sasdoi7t 6 Ir 
 wfnem to yitiow eyanta ois atnstheqxs L[etnemento srets 29880 
' esdowdo neteend bone nstyswrol .ezettoo eared sutd od? .nos 
=f100 to betouitanoo sis doin ,esenod ‘adnaessy 26 [lew ee 
5 Ne asitmte to sexsdoorte Ievestbsa yilenit das ,aredart [stnos 
| $99) \-boow nt agniviss to antot beizav seom sat yolqms ebart 

| way ak snob sd yeu atedmts sit to selgne ant to antvias sat 
| gedoton ni 19 ~8.CO e2£% at ge egntb{vow es 19d3ie .eyaw Boot 
) - SOTSmEN to anitedisg ankonbotd enottirseqe: ar entot ifs to 
bas agnizod asakigmoo seostie sit antvis> o(d .€d 2824) -ebatx 
bae bisod=tsd0e09 ,abaomsth ,eltdmsh .abait [fs to ancttevaoxe 
fofdw dtix ,etnonento to ettos sldatemunni bas anisstey basgis 
-s(0,28 37) .bodotins 918 eiedmit to selgns bas esostiwe end 

im duis to eeostige gnitnemsnto rot etnerbeqxs teed eft to snd 
modt egg yd to ,.ote ,edtevo1g ,etettel beaiont yd ef ess 
| -bavots Amwe # m0 

iiieeredutt edt to edniog bed edt sds tnshive tiee ai tl 
es .(00 .bf%) t9dto dose odnt beuzn0t sd oF 28 Of balitorg ad 
4 —pet ste zifen seodn ,eanrbltod mefeaod Ons astgenicy ar Savot 
an @ eredmis oft to ebne odd -tdgirt-1rs yletufords ed oF Soils 
_ @ Bhkbne cert me ebns sredT .tnio, bed to mot sat none neat 
tiedd Anivisa yi eyaw setevib teom sat of beqsde sd yen one 
-emtot weil[noeq at msdt Aniviao yd to , {7d 2287) abns bas asbse 

beatetetq od of ai nottetnemsnzo to eehbom szedt to eno dotay 
oom ,morsaicosb sat to sesndort ent ,esonateamso1ro no edneget 
sitf gnthiiod yisrodmes taszele ns sd of ei stwdomtte ods 9803 
-nsmunon 6 sd of ef 10 ,nottidtdxe Isitteobat ne to notliveg ¢@ 
ylgnoise Jeias2 of betinp|1 evoteten? ar dns ,eldtesoq ea isd 
-gmrot to sotodo sat eeso teal sit nt ;tedtasn To etostis ont 
-st10q90 biotts eagatviss xelqmoo sonts ,bsdintl stiap ed dam 
add Yo yeoob sneepsenoo baa.astsx stat to sottosf{loo wot yarn 
eisdmrt eyolqas semtiemoe sisdostinors meboow asieeah .bcow 
-(83 .3£9) nottoee gnoldo to Jon baa Lanoksxsa to 


er 


a9 
be cut off flush, making the bond visible at the angle. 

Tne decorative expedients for the esthetic treatment of these 
log walls consist in carving either the joints or surfaces of 
the timbers. also the projecting ends of the timbers, their 
bottoms or sides, angles, edses or ends; finally, when the 
ends do not project the angle bond is itself ornamented. Even 
‘if a richer treatment of such walls is found in exceptional 
cases, these ornamental expedients are always worthy of ment- 
ion. The true Swiss cottage, Norwegian and Russian churches . 
as well as peasants’ houses, which are constructed of hori- 
zontal timbers, and finally mediaeval structures of similar 
kinds employ the most varied forms of carvings in wood. 

The carving of the angles of the timbers may be done in var- 
‘ious ways, either as mouldings as in Fig. 65,a, or-in notches | 
of all forms in repetitions producing patterns of numerous 
kinds (Fig. 65, b). Carving the surfaces ‘comprises ‘borings and 
excavations of all kinds, dentils, diamonds, checker-board and 
zigzag patterns and innumerable sorts of ornaments, with which 
the surfaces and angles of timbers are enriched. (Fig. 65,c). 

One of the best expedients for ornamenting surfaces of timb- 
ers is by incised letters, proverbs, etc., or by raising them 
on a sunk ground. 

It is self evident tha the bed joints of the timbers can 
be profiled so as to be tongued into each other (Fig. 66), as 
found in Norwegian and Russian buildings, whose walls are req- 
uired to be absolutely air-tight. the ends of the timbers t 
then show the form of bed joint. These ends am free ending a 
and may be shaped in the most diverse ways by carving their 
sides and ends (Fig. 67), or by carving them in peculiar forms. 

Which one of these modes of ornamentation is to be preferred 
depends on circumstances, the richness of the decoration, whe- 
ther the structure is to be an elegant temporary building like 
a pavilion of an industrial exhibition, or is to be as monumen- 
tal as possible, and is therefore required to resist strongly 
the effects of weather; in the last case the choice of forms 
must be quite limited, since complex carvings afford opportu- 
nity for collection of rain mater and consequent decay of the 
wood. Russian wooden architecture sometimes employs timbers 
of hexagonal and not of oblong section (Fig. 68). 


Kay O¢ 
_ roto wits seredait feokdiev to bseoqgnoo elias. 
Rteetioe:2 eas aznibliod ni been ylowtins teomls ois allen dood 
et Yo setencs qodT .sonssioqat to seodt act moblee ,ee20qmy Y1 
oe ih ys tedtezot Hentol yissolo bas y{laottisy Jee sisdais 
_ st9few to noteainds tnevety of yllawen ,(25 .3f7) .9%9 ,eengnot 
ie iaigend ebme tied? to .bav012 edt otnt neviah ata eisdintd saeaT 
\ gidt gnitetoceb' to sebt en? .setsiq bas eliza otmt benonet 
ted a te Yh toI senoyns of t0999 19ve0 Hiloow [lan & to basx 
 -babsuom yd betsveo ed yeu arsduts edd nsonted etntoi, adt .bev 
-Redsen of tedtien tod ,ekatviso yd sidtetv sham sd ,anstiad 
nen Wi) «19daw to sonettas timteq of to aiedmis ond 
neented etnenento beste: yJ bednemento od bilvyoda areduis saT 
 benomed emesd [etnoxtiod si% 10 sefely ent bas ,enstied edd. 
“band antere? entestag sven biloode etsoqg sdt to abms edd nsseteod 
aed pte ity | ~ellen brsod .y 
of yamottitse3 ntdd sot bees yisritns teaonls e168 aliaw brsod 
=sneq betsoent sie dotdw at xtowsmertt & to tatenoo isitie yodt 
etnos TO Miyi1 te gntavoio ebtscd to seeesmioids ont to 16 ,al 
eats & to Sencqmoo sts 10 ,(O% .2f%) tentegod belisa baa eelgne 
_vqelievo 0 wsitfezot hewinot . attitude esinely to aéeniotad of 
pees [etnostiocd base ateog [acitisv to bie sas Asin eBOLg : 
~ taom ek tk asdtejot baften abtsod to asegemiorat owt 0% 
ie eae et-aoeto on ew .(IT 22%) stato, eat qel of [nteteet 
oe fdtwe efatot, edt antbivom bas ,boow sdt Yo sgeickide yd bee 
e082 mo sonenlini bsbioeh 2 ned abeod [ran te Antosga telyyer 
a0 beyolams ei nottouttencs to shom ekdt tT etoatts [a1en93 
-ed 40 fetem t500e to eqiate yo beish10d ad bleode year ,et00b 
©) Yoretooh <tnemdorsy to testes yd .ti yt heravoo ylsdelqaos 
| Phase .yew efat nt Setsext yltnaupsit sien asdotodo [avesiosn 
~ eonmseetansi matistt edt mi seoslaq bas esdotudo bo atoob odd 
“tebtod edt to segbe eat .faten ntdt yl betevoo esmisonoe site 
“elfen ,sntetteq botvev teom oat at tuo s¢ yam [atsm to eqtise 
etal ofnr begade sd abeed tient? no ,aetseeor ofnt beansto ef 
‘-satbom edt wenase yam gnisevoo edsly odd jyadosd svitostts bas 
mtot smoe ai tuo Snted sgbe eno ,eqizte [staosttod to wot Lev 
“qf betevoo ed 10 ,(SY .29%) sostree stt to notatvib aa9nil te 
alten edt e1r)edw .et00b somseateanss tot es setala belien yimrrt 
=e eq yam sfodw odd 10 ,metaye avitstooeb [sioega s stot 
eTnhsmegneite Tadsjo yaa t9bhA9 


ya 


50 
8.Walls composed of vertical timbers. 

Such walls are almost entirely uséd in buildings for ordina- 
ry purposes, seldom for those of importance. They consist of | 
timbers set vertically and closely joined together by grooves, 
tongues, etc. (Fig. 69), usually to prevent admission of water. 
These timbers are driven into the ground, or their ends are 
tenoned into sills and plates. The idea of decorating this 
kind of a wall would never occur to anyone. But if it be desi- 
red, the joints between the timbers may be covered by moulded 
battens, be made visible by carvings, but neither to weaken 
the timbers or to permit entrance of water. 

The timbers should be ornamented by raised ornaments between 
the battens, and the plates or the horizontal beams tenoned 
between the ends of the posts should have patterns forming bands. 

y. Board walls. 

Board walls are almost entirely used for thin partitions; t 
they either consist of a framework in which are inserted pane- 
ls, or of two thicknesses of boards crossing at right or acute 
angles and nailed together (Fig. 70), or are composed of a sin- 
gle thickness of planks abutting, tongued together or overlap- 
ping, with the aid of vertical posts and horizontal girts. 

For two thicknesses of boards nailed together it is most 
tasteful to lap the joints (Fig. 71), as no crack is then :cau- 
sed by shrinkage of the wood, and moulding the joints with a 
regular spacing of nail heads has a decided influence on the 
general effect. If this mode of construction is employed for 
doors, they should be bordered by strips of sheet metal or te 
completely covered by it, by leatber or parchment; doors of 
mediaeval churches were frequently treated in this way, and 
the doors od churches and palaces in the Italian Renaissance 
were sometimes covered by thin metal. The edges of the border 
strips of metal may be cut in the most varied patterns, nails 
He changed into rosettes, om their heads be shaped ‘into large 
and effective knobs; the plate covering may assuem the medciae- 
val form of horizontal strips, one edge being ‘cut in some form 
of linear division of the surface (Fgg. 72), or be covered by 
firmly nailed plates as for Renaissance doors, shere the nails 
form a special decorative system, or the whole may pe placed 
under any other arrangement. 


| fe 
. gvtee yf{si9ensy sdims{q 10 ebtzod to esiescfone 10 esons’ 
ss obtedsee ns doide 1ot ,eesoq1ng y1seRs099 To yIstOgmst yLe1em 
it ,betetoced oJ of sis yods tI .oldieaimbs fom ef tnssastsors 
f — of ,f -:noifouitemoo to sbhom edt oF Bnrbtoc9s aldteacy ei 
_ gbasod ent to as36e tnitgqgel ive adt tuo of .S jadmiot sat bio 
abtsod edt nt eovoois bebioom tuo of .€ ; (EY -a8§) antatieg a: 
senol fne t9qqu edT .(DY -BL%) ofyte Leveetbem ak eevi[eenen? 
BB kT emit betso1t ayents taonlé sis aeoaet hedosteb io entzies 
#78 am10t tent efor (sten93 odd of Sosi ue sts dota oh ee aN 
oc: -tto Asoid of enoitoetoig sat saves tdgtm sadt .S5ebrova sd of 
~eoied bas eteyetsg sit bebbe ad binode seanest bised seedt of 
seeellen Baiisg a6 [few es ,.089 ,n9Rbird astisifeg to esbert 
“=18y to bexoqmod asssitt 1c ebned 10% elon & es aebsitenlad, 
fatnosttod s yd 30s te tedtezod bled are seedd .etnamelo Lsoad 
bied 16 [f21 19ddons ofnk bsnonst anied e6ne tewel assent ,iiss 
xem sbisod edt tedt of .(d\ .RkF) eqittea to tkeq 8 Yd tErMseZor 
yidisy eabised edt to 3atttoo siaT .amio? 3arhue 991i as tuo sd 
-te101199 nk yidwseq .(cl .3h%) etato, sad Rntmehin ni atetenoo 
f anticet yitised bas toett0o A (OT .2f£%) sbased sdt to anos 
_ postinors meboow bsgoleveb ylatelgmoo teom oda enciten ons bel 
yanaigewiow base ensterol ,ensizsveS t9qql) ,saeloiy? ,saind , sass 
-10t wefognsios: dtin abisod eat to etna edd geass of yLlers993 
po beviod wot of of to ,antestey yrsbLotdms bane soal sits em 
~steb anthirove .entl to yl se13 2 steokbii of yLot9m 24 aduo 
,M08891 Sno nedt stom tot .elsmtns bas ednsig to eniol sisarat 
emptoatidors neboon wo to extot bexsa-se1t atsbom sat to yoem 
-Jo to santitco otetini ysdt sonie ,efdanortoeido stotersat ots 
fon dad no betnisq 33 yen dads .fetistem eldetivans ns ni atoey 
teak? edt nt nofttontot ef ek tedtit bee ,tbts0ed ai boxee-tott 
-tetvibd beonsisd yfent? & so brogeb agaistes eredd teds ,soely 
.aaanal od¢ no asven tod ,stel bane bevomet adiag. sad to a0 
“ie | e3aidt efratteb yaa to 
hes eerxesto1os ,adedose1d meboor ,2908890 [enottqeoxs at yf[n0 
~been ed of boow ni agnittuo es aliatsh L[erstoetidore telitzce 
-do [sénecent0 ~em1tot tos[g bas alemtns ,sbeed tnsasiges doide 
-32 9d of nods ose yods bane ,sentl devine ditw yllsiene, esos}, 
gmeboor tot tnemettapsa etdT .yosorish [enottqsoxe atin bstes 
ae tuo od bloods eerdkt edT -bertiteu, ylirese ef sautooetiaote 
etisg tedt yew & dows at tno tasel ta 10 .efiteeog se sissil 


51 

Fences or enclosures of boards or planks generally serve 
merely temporary or necessary purposes, for which an esthetic 
treatmeent is not admissible. If they are to be decorated, it 
is possible according to the mode of ‘construction:- 1, to mo- 
uld the joints; 2, to cut the overlapping edges of the boards 
in patterns (Big. 73); 3, to cut moulded grooves in the boards 
themselves in mediaeval style (Fig. 74). The upper and loner 
margins of detached fences are 4lmost always treated lige Figs. 
73, 75, which are sujject to the general rule that forms are 
to be avoided, that might cause the projections to break off. 

To these board fences should be added the parapets and balus- 
trades of galleries, bridges, etc., as well as paling walls. | 
Balustrades as a whole form bands or friezes composed of ver- 
tical elements. these are held together at top by.a horizontal 
rail, their lower ends being tenoned into another rail or held 
together by a pair of strips (Fig. 76), so that the boards may 
be cut in free euding forms. This cutting of the boards partly 
consists ‘in widening the joints (Fig. 75), partly in perforat- 
ions of the boards (Fig. 76). A correct and healthy feeling 1 
led the nations who most completely developed wooden architec- 
ture, Swies, Tyrolese, Upper Bavarians, Russians and Norwegians, 
generally to treat the cuts of the boards with rectangular for- 
ms like lace and embroidery patterns, or so to form curved cu 
cuts as merely to indicate 4 free play of line, avoiding dete- 
rminate forms of plants and animals. For more than one reason, 
many of the modern fret-sawed forms of our wooden architecture 
are therefore objectionable, since they imitate outlines of ob- 
jects in an unsuitable material, that may be painted on but not 
fret-sawed in boards, and further is is forgotten in the first 
place, that these cuttings depend on a finely balanced divisi- 
on of the parts removed and left, but never on the repetition 
of any definite thing. 

Only ‘in exceptional cases, wooden brackets, acroterias and 
similar architectural details are cuttings in wood to be used, 
abich represent heads, animals and plant forms, ornamental ob- 
jects generally with curved lines, and they are then to be tr- 
eated with exceptional delicacy. This requirement for wooden 
architecture is easily justified. The fibres should be cut as 
little as possible, or at least ont in such 4 way that parts 


oe / 
Pn ie 


ae ) $e i 
osfs blbode boow sit ;tto govb ysm emotteroosb ashoow sass to 
mento une wee of batiash od tf TI wmedaye ten tnstenos » sict 
_ maste & to eneom yd nO betnisg Jedt ot islinta brs0d # nt dns 
: ~te1 ytev eid tud tuo ylasqotqar yfno ton sts seid? sat Lio 
bne ainiog tsel sdt ,Jnomenio edd to snensvon sat ak atnement 
wuitosttoont 10 ytinotttib dtiin tuo bewee ers entolrsbleae od? 
to dnonerenam sett sit atsbaia bised sat to aeemoidd oat ee 
 a$kta ylno 918 anztesh weatett to antot xelquoo sed? wee end 
ot hota” Loken ian .sbasod nint wiev 10 [sion tesda rot side 
rm eotetoetidorws meboor 
bas oft s e2 tagtl 10 Atsh as9eqqe BInemanto foo boxse saT 
‘ yao? ,Saso13 Jdyif 2 no etoge doatd extl Anwe enotsatotisy ete 
_—s—s«®:«SAOTSrSsds Ons boow sat nsdt ylynowe stom mottnsetts soerste 
, o8 eldtecog ef tr tk <salo [fa aroted tremteers mot sxtaps 
gemuaes AtoKboow yninismet edt tsdt eanottatotisa sat scede ot 
sbetisteig sd ot ei atdt sadt tnebive tfen et dt .emtot rsgo74 
/egniviso to su1t ef bisa sted ef tedw 10 sdteoggo edd yltoaxd 
dif toetisq aed ano sse89 dour ak iakuotdt too Jom sbhtsod no 
-fito m0 pelten sis ebascd betstotisy tl .berresh es of of ydte 
std aot't ~tet{ea mk mottst0096 to Sard #« met of ebisod 16 
ymeteye ton s mot eyentea teow bised besetotisg sat teds soe 
=480 Statotssqnt to seko nt as eldiertmtag et mobsett suse edd 
sa? .belten yimitt ets enottio0g elige1? ston ens sonta .azaiv 
. Teqqn bre fo? sdf nt aeavon neboow bane seevod eatw2 tesntt 
edaetenos teers stiw wel yiemtag atdt oF Sevsdbe eved erteved 
“eeasiq to ezninego yfeartas teomia ota enorteiotiag sat yon 
‘no been at jnsmento sett edd dud ,tnowegnetts bos syede vat 
Yo mtot sat at ancitt1oq [atnaemento asiftare dre afeneq ,sessit't 
 set0tis] sdt asdtio tent tnebive tlee at tT «no balten brsod s 
Stosqinoe s nistdo of beviso sd yen no beften Steod sit 10 bat 
| foe .anizateq to bie sdt xd betero0sh sd yen Jr 20 ,sostts bs 
, ~18V07 edt to trethsqxs sno bebefoxe ylbiery ed of ef eidt mort 
"FE to sbom & rot eoeena eysule ff dhoodsd .FAg0043 atshos to yt 
‘Ratistmedo edit .,eeentIgn eff Yo sirqge at ytuesd sd? bateesstcot 
@i 31 .entf beroloo * yd emtot to Aniniftno edd 5n8 celans to 
“ymeeqqeesrbh ton asob atest ne tors eidd tsdt sldrenessagroont 
‘Bbéenttst to nemtseqe 8 ea besittg asvs #i Fk @loodoes as0 mt Sad 
-nitot bos bansdaen abrenvet es ef 10% snieesly teom sit? .steat 
ylfatoeqae sham sd of ef tk Tk baa ,teoo Hessetori ns fe te 


‘i 


52 

of these wooden decorations may drop off; the wood should also 
form a coherent net system. If it be desired to saw anw ornam- 
ent in a board similar to that painted on by means of a sten- 
cil, the fibres are not only improperly cut, but the very ref- 
‘inements in the movement of the ornament, the leaf points and 
the smaiterforms are sawed out with difficulty or incorrectly, 
as the thickness of the board hinders the free management of 
the saw. These complex forms of fretsaw designs are only suit- 
able for sheet metal or verw thin boards, scarcely employed in 
wooden architecture. 

The sawed out ornaments appear dark or light as a rule and 
are perforations sunk like black spots on a light ground; they 
attract attention more strongly than the wood and therefore r 
require form treatmert before all else; if it is possible so 
to shape the perforations that the remaining woodwork assumes 
proper forms, it is self evident tha: this is to be preferred. 
Exactly the opposite or what is here said is true of carvings 
on boards not cut through; in such cases one has perfect lib- 
erty to do as desired. If perforated boards are nailed on oth- 
er boards to form a kind of decoration in relief, from the 
fact that the perforated board must always form a net system, 
the same freedom is permissible as in case of imperforate car- 
vings, since the more fragile portions are firmly nailed. The 
finest Swiss houses and wooden houses in the Tyrol and upper 
Ravaria have adhered to this primary law with great consist- 
ency; the perforations are almost entirely openings of pleas- 
ing<shape and arrangement, but the free ornament is used on 
friezes, panels and similar ornamental portions in the forn of 
a board nailed on. It is self evident that either the perfora- 
ted or the board nailed on may be carved to obtain a sculptar- 
ead effect, or it may be decorated by the aid of painting. But 
from this is to be rigidly excluded one expedient of the pover- 
ty of modern thought, though it always passes for a mode of i 
‘increasing the beauty in spite of its ugliness, the chanfering 
of angles and the outlining of forms by a colored line. It is 
incomprehensible that this error in taste does not disappear, 
but in our schools it is even prized as a specimen of refined 
taste. The most pleasing form is afternards weakened and ruin- 
et at an increased cost, and if it is to be made especially 


a ee 
ey Pid saan ol 
ting s te nysib ned? et eaitta bes blod # .{atisossd 
2 Deer e9ease20g a10t edt tadt of .eh6e yigo ect moat eon 
oon edd sqe ot Seffeqmoo asad toesitow eas eI .1stoeredo 
aed arsenal Yo tdgia edt esesesacq snols ofn .2OVvIE9 
A fabsad yd 
ee{fenw anilet .6 

noo aeons? Atay eiqute ebufont oefs allew gnirisd 
yd betrogqua baa wsdtekzod seolo baoslg assfoq Isordisv 
at to esbom insiettihb Jausee1q yeds baa .eliaa L[atno 
"! 1b Jeon eit 3ntaistdo Yo ansem eesnaog henotinem seonet ent 
em ) fenps Yo atedotq to noitoeles [uteiso sat nit ,amtot sexs 
if = * eacly to nottoditedve sad ai .s1sdonaib {supe yledsniedtir 
))) eff nt .efier (etnostiod ods tot aint solfin aevowiedar yf 
par i t mi bas alsoitisy ons to ebne tsqqu ent to Bniviso elgare 
a oo Huog .2o1ueolone A1eq tol «ited atedd to Levene: [eté104 
es siqgmte atdt ..o¢® ,snsbiaz [eofzoloos ak asonet ,ebisy 


d 
1 i 
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= el ae | 
s4 ex ly ve 
¥ 7 


boom O47 tt dns .eyen Gatesslg ynsm ak noktaeiaev Yo atiabe 
2 to solos. edt of sub ei toette rofoo Leqionitg seodn .Aton 
vo it yd benstdyiod ed ,psoslg bebansd sad to boos adit bae ited 
* att ' methal <eatnd betoloo yitdarid to Atow aevontedat to bie 
ie or ted shainego edd bas ,aeloq edt to enott107 no beau Snied 
abe ‘pst od yaa aa eBooLd7al anit dtirw bef{rt j0t980 Aleotdiev 
Yow ont ne beqolsvsbh od yam esshr yrstasuels slquia sends won? 
Dexa: | eam7ot te tneutesas Yo dtlesw slitsteus 
1 ‘bas sinteus T9qgqU mi bavot ef Aton aatfeq Yo seu iwsilugeg 4 
ber bio sot-esrotourte [eto1 wslinie bos abode yd ai Aremieied? 
a fit bellit oe ei ebede dopz to sms1t ofgute ont :eonegieg ytean 
| ‘we 2207 neserted seosqe edt eiem of #8. e9loq 1ft reb mele adiv 
magn testsse esodt .(\C .34T) bsaiwse sesqge sotalg baa etrid 
bd ysm bas medt neeudod sedsqa edd bae esfoq edd Yo baxtc} 
|) need ylinsoe: asd [fen a to Oagsd ein? .oyen Ynse oi bois 
=fb19 .ofe ,enobieg [eoigoloos hae aetatonate Lamy tat dsyol 
b aantbited Yo ebati [fa ot been e318 eaoititisg soitteal yen 
c peereeene yi eyse yaem mi beteo1s ane bas esroqisg prianibio 
pi ae6nth Yo hodésm sdf mo1l .aqttta edd to esthe edt anid 
pie esvitom to aedmon siditessdxent ne escetiue to cot 
Rattini{ emee oat yd benevoz yltnsbive sis doide beats | 
gakstes meceeapar eit 10% sevig need ybserls evad geds .esiqio.— 
Reig olay Ne, | | (BY, 88%) abised to 


he 


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53 
beautiful, a bold red stripe is then drawn at a uniform dista- 
nce from the ugly edge, so that the form possesses still less 
character. Is the architect then compelled to ape the wood 
carver, who alone possesses the right of enclosing has work 
by bands? 
§. Paling walls. 

Paling walls also include simple park fences consisting of 
vertical poles placed close together and supported by horiz- 
ontal rails, and they present different modes of treatment. 
The fences mentioned possess means of obtaining the most div- 
erse forms, in the careful selection of pickets of equal or 
alternately equal diameters, in the substitution of pleasing- 
ly interwoven willow twigs for the horizontal rails, in the 
simple carving of the upper ends of the verticals and in the 
partial removal of their bark. For park enclosures, poultry 
yards, fences in zoological gardens, etc., this simple motive 
admits of variation in many pleasing ways, and if the wood- 
work, whose principal color effect is due to the color of the 
bark and the wood of the denuded places, be heightened by the 
aid of interwoven work of brightly colored twigs, Indian red 
being used on portions of the poles, and the openings between 
vertical being filled with fine lattices, as may be required, 
from these simple elementary ideas may be developed an inexh- 
austible wealth of treatment of forms. | 

A peculiar use of paling work is found in Upper Austria and 
Steiermark in hay sheds and similar rural structures for ordi- 
nary purposes; the simple frame of such sheds is so filled in 
sith slender fir poles as to make the spaces between posts, 
girts and plates appear striped (Fig. 77), these stripes are 
formed of the poles and the spaces between them and may be va- 
ried in many ways. This kind of a wall has recently been emp- 
loyed for rural structures and zoological gardens, etc. Ordi- 
nary lattice partitions are used in all kinds of buildings for 
ordinary, purposes and are treated in many ways by means of cut- 
ting the edges of the strips. From the method of dinear divis- 
ion of surfaces an inexhaustible namber of motives may be obt- 
ained, which are evidently governed by the same limiting prin- 
ciples, that have already been given for the ornamental cutting 
of boards (Fig. 78). 


eqinte ed? to emiot sat weiv to tafoq wdata s mote 
- > od) yderedt ysm bas. ankvaso to tnetbeqxe yreve yol 
— Sih wets pieqo1q gniviso hoor at tetiet wol to extow of 
- taet beqxe emea odd yd yeu ednust Istuten yI benetnist escery 
eboow nk setstqivoe snd ofnt Dowtotensss 9d Bniviso to 
eee: — es90tssal bane gnif{sneald .3 
dt dste Xr0nsus7t eeketne & to bseogmoo exyants ak antlenst 
efensq od3 bos Asowten to Sati s emtot ema? sdt jelensqg 1s8 
Sa (ed ys 10 .gaintl s es. no benstest at bevooy sd yeu 
ti _,boow yllevan et efoned ett Yo [atretem oat .bettino 
eeo 20 beverans Yo eetsly ,edele oldram yd beoslqes sd 
| fod znibiosos. ,.ote ,dtloo 10 tmemco1sg .2eel3 to eteade 
Bi ioeascee ot svani won eH .3nifoensq sdt yd bevise aeogtg 
© moitowitanos bas Atonomast off Bntutot to esbom ont List 
) trea geett ,alenaq to elstistem .aflensg siqmrs ,eleneg ont 
 bne ,ne0tstel to sbnti enottav edt ..ot9 .ezmtoloom .etarol 
woneaag seottiel bas yntiensy dotdw wt essoguag edt yisesl 
toaig: yd boow to seoery [femme to betouttenco ef gnifaned 
ite | geetisom yi) recto edt to gost edt fteateha ease exo 
2 8 Som yas aniteege yisotste ;.o¢e ,esvoory bas esagmos ,ero 
ip : “aging yidaistetg tod ,gnitfeneg r0t beyolgae sd yem aos 
B vetesd 2 shem sts emeteya sokttel 10 ofeeom smog .mateye 
ae Daten to ssoskq sat sot tnemettopet [eitnaees od? wanilen 
— ameade ot 28 of ,wortsn Sd teum yadd tadd ef AroONemadt eno as 


= ey 5 
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aw 


ah 

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pes. 
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ebiwnedy wourse isdter sd blnode yedt sreteisd? .olssel gud 
Sc taasde: ‘dotdu .elensq nsdhoow [fe to suxt serwoditl at amee sas 
a... tokeivib « eatineast eidd wore ste yodt rewomsan sit sees! 
i jabaaen? edt asdn ;afoenels benidmoo yeau otnt Atonement oat 
bas beagaot bifoe .afeneg wotten Adin baowd yisy shea ad of 
| ott i“ exert sft msewted beosly sd teum syatblvonm bavoorg 
Eee ae «(08 °,Q0 .e3k%) aloneg 
{: dete brooos seuw Yfoeti Avowsmes* edt Yo motdeiooed sat 
5 


\ + ts 


ies 


198 to eetoeolons to Anitsbied eas 10% bedakidetes sslyroniag 
<v1s> 10 bisini yd betercosh bas bebluon yliscav at II 29082 
efq edomi off{fatem yo betmemente offs at bos .etnomanto bs 
okiletem yd to Ba0etq msboor eat to enoitoegiednat sat gs 
-B3aimn 
> bra ivenuen edt ar Davot sd of si Bntfeney teodory saT 
esoaseatensd eas to teddy at dna, edetd edt Yo Atow Jon 


54 

From a higher point of view the forms of the strips may emp- 
loy every expedient of carving, and ‘may thereby be changed ‘in- 
to works of low relief in wood ‘carving proper; also the ‘round 
pieces furnished by natural trunks may by the same expedient 
of carving be transformed into trae sculptures in wood. 

¢. Paneling and lattices. 

Paneling is always composed of a thicker framework with thin- 
ner panels; the frame forms a kind of network and the ‘panels 
may be grooved in, fastened on as @ lining, or may be entirely 
omitted. The material of the panels is usually wood, which may 
be replaced by marble slabs, plates of engraved or cast metal, 
sheets of glass, parchment or colth, etc., according to the p 
purpose served by the paneling. We now have to consider ‘in de- 
tail the modes of forming the framework and ‘construction of 
the panels, simple panels, materials of panels, treatment of 
joints, mouldings, etc., the various kinds of lattices, and 
lastly the purposes for which paneling and lattices are used. 

Paneling is constructed of small pieces of wood by placing 
one series against the face of the other, by mortises and ten- 
ons, tongues and grooves, etc.; strictly speaking any net sys- 
tem may be employed for paneling, but preferably only a web git 
system, some mosaic or lattice systems are made 4 basis of :pa- 
neling. The essential requirement for the pieces of wood used 
in the framework is that they must be narrow, so as to shrink 
but little. Therefore they should be rather narrow than wide; 
the same is likewise true of all wooden panels, which shrink 
least the nagrower they are. From this results a division of 
the framesork into many combined elements; when the frame is 
to be made very broad with narrow panels, solid tongued and 
grooved mouldings must be placed between the frame and the 
panels (Figs. 79, 80). 

The decoration of the framework itself must accord with the 
principles established for the pordering or enclosures of sur- 

faces. It is usually moulded and decorated by inlaid or carv- 
ed ornaments, and is also ornamented ‘by metallic knobs placed 
at the intersections of the wooden pieces or by metallic trim- 
mings. 

The richest paneling is to be found in the joinery and cabi- 
net work of the Arabs,and in that of the Renaissance. 


yedd? .ed¢sq [svevea to tetanoo dose aleneq odd tI 
y eglt) moseys ofeeom oldeting yas ddiw sonsbrov0s mt benid 
bnooss s yd hensdtgnetta od oF sttupet yfiatenes cedt yest 
yom fansq sdT .fensq edt of nelgns td3i1 te ebis0d Yo seenios 
rt ni seeds sinensis to eeeasniotdt owt To dsrogsoo sd oels 
8% ea (88 .gf8) as91 at eaodt to etntot eat ynitevoo 
aq od, yeu afonsg ont ,yileni® .ttow leveatbea ak svis 
a Istosqe 10 .at bevoo1y eantbisom yd baoelqe1 yletisns 
{ egatbinon ak=bevoot® edd ,fSeiisent od yem antinom bas 
aaa i$ B100b mehoow |adt (£8 .RiT) meds neented bacots aside 
visom sasit beyolqas sonses tan netiet] edt to eantiiso 
soqe bone egntbivon ni-devoota to sau edt Layan beivev yisv 
a ‘if tent? tedt <83etaevbe efds adaotts anitncn bas elie 
DA *(anoteneath szael to Jon ets doitdu .5een ed aso edoon 
aedto sdt no ;hnorse Ona tots Atod eatasque aniisnsy edt 
ae sbesestont eta saoo baa todal dgod 
Sdgim st nsdt aeel eyolams emtt taene1g sat to yrenitot 
boot santieneg at elensg tot boow ment tsato alsinedsm to 
eis sasit nedw .elensg rot bean yliisazsoen eyeule 
ataow wliake bas fooantew ,2100b nt ae aieita soetib 


ah 
oe si me 


ones B foStth sat seestont oT wot hoasetg 10 medord od yam yous | 


eerie .benedtgnsite ed bluode nottiog sfbbrm ett 92 
; “de beqqoda ,afansa beetet bad bebinow ylisoit¢iev L[evertion 
ble ,eutot ytew to ekeivies yd shoe rewol bas asqq0 ike 


[eng bnomsth seodt to emtot odd beet ot s{diteeog es Ipteis9 
: i - ols enote ak beyolqnus ssodt mort sldieroy es tonttearb ee 
| * bebbe sd yen elensq 10t sboow yrsmibto edt Yo sep stds of 
ia Sebati ([e bas estewstni to .2boow enotosty odd tolseds 
9x6 ton elsasq oat tot eleiteten teed ent to end .xXt0W brs 

tess .ferfoq bas 10lo> sakt to saote dtoone ef ytoint oF 
‘ehatd tnerettib sat yfno tov .asktitiaool yaem at bsaso 
.enitnegaea sass Yo-ehalY esofsev edt onl tad oid 
te Bae efetayis eeely offs ,.oo8 ,18ga towlt bae rlosel 
te bevetane to edsfes attw ,afensy as Ssyolqne sd nao ,seels 
o fequten slisitive tedvo yrs 10 ,2enote otdgstsoddil bedots 
eS36 wsterien eoantgfoos eott .ealersnts [atortiize 
),taeo Yo tetfer at eotely alensq rot seu t9dd10t yen oi 


edt ,.0%8 ,eeopsl[y belemens .{ston hetteogsd orsoels To beiem 


team eno-tod ,atsidase befensa xnometh beats: soasesteces 


ae 
7 


55 

If the panels each consist of several parts, they may be com- 
bined in accordance with any suitable mosaic system (Fig. 81); 
they then generally require to be strengthened by a second th- 
ickness of boards at right angles to the panel. The panel may 
algo be composed of two thicknesses of elements, these in front 
covering the joints of those in rear (Fig. 82), a favorite mo- 
tive in mediaeval work. Finally, the panels may, be partly or 
entirely replaced by mouldings grooved in, or special rails a 
and muntins may be inserted, the grooved-in mouldings being 
broken around between them (Fig. 83). The wooden doors and 
ceilings of the Italian Renaissance employed these ‘motives in 
very varied ways. the use of grooved-in mouldings and special 
rails and muntins affords this advantage, that finer kinds of 
woods can be used, which are not of large diwensions, and that 
the paneling appears both rich and strong; on the other hand 
both labor and :cost are increased. 

Joinery of the present time employs less than it might, kinds 
of materials other than wood for ‘panels in paneling. Wood is 
always necessarily used for panels, when these are subject to 
direct strain as in doors, wainscot and similar works, where 
they may be broken or pressed in. To increase the direct stren- 
gth, its middle portion should be strengthened, either by the 
mediaeval vertically moulded and raised panels, stopped at th- 
eir upper and lowe:r ends by carvings of many forms, or by the 
Renaissance raised diamong paneled ashlars, but one must be as 
careful as possible to keed the forms of these diamond panels 
as distinct as possible from those employed in stone work. 

fo this use of the ordinary woods for panels may be added 
thatoof the ‘precious woods, of intarsias and all kinds of inl- 
aid work. One of the best materials for the panels not exposed 
to injury is smooth stone of fine color and polish, easily pro- 
cured in many localities. Not only the different kinds of mar- 
ble, but also the various kinds of quartz, serpentine, lapis | 
lazuli and fluor spar, etc., also glass crystals and stained 
élass, can be employed as panels, with slabs of engraved slate, 
etched lithographic stones, or any other suitable natural or 
artificial minerals, true sculptures, reliefs, etc. 

We may further use for panels plates in relief of cast, ham- 
mered or electro deposited metal, enameled plaques, etc., the 


.sotfotam dns sonsts? ,setateudat sie bas [stem to atoubory 
josd Aviv .snotsqanert gated rsstel sad ,pealz bans ntelsor0q 
ote eanty) onpero no bebfts .beneta ,dedot%s to baverins enoit 
ite ,tedtsel bequsse .Jaamdorsg oale serorrim to m1of! eat 
f tedto bas: yrsbtoidse ,ebsood blog .scel ,ddolo ,teviev 
: to 10° gevneo no detwoexs agatisisg ylteel .alstrstes of 
ey ay Bot a ealaiis? 
; ‘Se, etatot, yd hefosanos e168 saeitt ett to sdisg ent 
stotnt To eeodW,eTEMI0D ete dae .ssisaa sentto to ody 
9 of slut edt xen ti eoRe elbdbin oft antiub bak ,asoeig 
P .(28 .3t) yew emon ak stniot beattaom das etoanr ent 
s even Hokdw ,e100ob neboow noaroo to suid yllatosyes 


-adnowsmatt bas efensq nsented etatol to ansurtss1s sat 
ise! ed gon [fade [oneqgadt tadt tnomsiiupss sdt sort 
foertnoo baz basgxs ylse1t of ee of od ,animart ent of 
0 oben ets efensg sid Ti ;gatqtaw To Batkorto to tssmab Jue 
yvltbse: tedt bas ,seso sit ylisuea es Seow ytansb10 
A ekabihbon oat teat ,bedetidedes sts enoisioaoco ons 
LBivow roles taststtib s to tatot snif « sonta ,betncea 94 
aehvees ded? dns .[oneq eat Yo szeintide sat yd eidkerv ago 
Be ‘edt Yo not#oertnom bas notégasqxe tedt of bsisves ed sapum 
i, ievabegal end jntb{vom yd snob od yer ein? .eldtaiv ad fon yen 
to :fonsy edt ?xen baeot #& baiosly base Asowemert ont 
nat Yo apbe edt ot [stom ao boow to gathivon to bawot & yar 
— fewten adi ot steal yierem ak boow sdt IT .(d8 .3f7) x10nemert 
— P yilekmiey tne tsqansas dtin betsoo to belito anied yiao .toloo 
p Bynthbivow tae shavor sat hos ,oldtetw sd ton [fin etniol eds 
| aie boow edt gatsq of bevtesd ed i TT .ytsaz900en od ton lin 
pet bas egnibi{som betnteqgnau sot sometstetqt 8 duie 
.betnisq ors sleney bas Atowemert sit Yo esoxtawe ed 
ek e! eboow sat to tofoo ([santen sat oi exnthivom oat 

d bentmtesteS sis elsneq bas dAtowsmett edt to agarbilsom sal 


sneqg osd% Yt -oldrerog audd anied euro? To yisitav test 
| -etoteiids at bas .kathited s to toiistai sat at beyolgmue 

ane edd. gt tneusvom ynowse s .sSdarl beenttibh yo bedagil yl leyso 
piotiséxs rot esctttve sno ste1sbom s siinw ,berispet ei eslitorg 


b iv 
ee hs 


» ’ 

A : 

oa 
a 


t ote as dose ,aintol Detsi0osb seent yyer teefqgute sat at 
t aide de oan to yittow ste seauod eaiwe bore Laveatben ar ~ 


e .ensiy 8 dtin dooiwte ete yodt -anoiteisbierico baitwollot sat 


a? - ey ’ y i 


56 
products of metal and art industries, faience and majolica, p 
porcelain and glass, the latter being transparent, with decora- 
tions engraved or etched, staned, gilded or opaque glass in t , 
the forn of mirrors: also parchment, stamped leather, silk, v 
velvet, cloth, lace, gold brocade, embroidery and other texti- 
le materials, lastly paintings executed on canvas or other ma- 
terials. 

[The parts of the frame are connected by joints at right, ac- 
ute or obtuse angles, and are cornerg,across or intersecting i 
pieces, and during the middle ages it was the rule to ornament 
the insets and mogtised joints in some way (Fig. 85). This is 
especially true of common wooden doors, which were ornamented 
‘in the simplest way; these decorated joints, such as are found 
‘in mediaeval and Swiss houses are worthy of use at this time. 

The treatment of joints between panels and framework results 
from the requirement that thevpanel shall not be loosely set 
in the framing, bu so as to freely expand and contract with- 
out danger of cracking or warping; if the panels are made of 
ordinary wood as usually the case, and that readily shrinks, 
two conditions are established, that the woodword must not 
be painted, since a line joint of a different color would bec- 
ome visible by the shrinkage of the panel, and that the joint 
must be covered so that expangion and contraction of the panel 
may not be visible. This may be done by moulding the edge of 
the framework and placing a round next the panel; or by fasten- 
ing a round or moulding of wood or metal to the edge of the 
framework (Fig. 86). If the wood is merely left in its natural 
color, only being oiled or coated with transparent varnish, t 
the joints will not be visible, and the rounds anf mouldings 
will not be necessary. If it be desired to paint the woodwork, 
with a fpreference for unpainted mouldings and joints, only t 
the surfaces of the framework and panels are painted, leaving 
the mouldings in the natural color of the wood. 

The mouldings of the framework and panels are determined by 
the following considerations. they are struck with a plane, a 
great variety of forms being thus possible; if the paneling is 
employed in the interior of a building, and is thrrefore prin- 
Cipally lighted by diffused light, a strong movement in the 
profiles is required, while a moderate one suffices for exteriors. 


e Rey | 

$ mont at d£ tusterh siom edt bas Ayoxboow ods neiteb eit 
eifoq jeslitory sit to dnemevon ot od tenm reR;n01se sit exe 
_ogai | een kg bas detnisy ,dnteg hnintde bas aboow bed 
Pe etaamsyom teoisen odd yd 

‘=2118 9d of af Atowomert sit dotdn din wotv 843 of 3ntbioco4 
eft bavote tnentmotg stow tesqgs yeu [etiedam ead tedd ,begne 
ay, eaypntyeet .enafoun & sort ebacet to sostise sft to araies 
peteatea,§2Ql .q ,20Lnosos? sisqnoo) tnentmotg east sibbin 
> tent netv wadto edt atin ,(aov0? gatdiors! sntntson09 
ma mottoeitte Yo nottstnoassqe1 sit dtin betosnnoo ef 
qr Yo eslitorg sat ontaistsh .noteluget to tect dtin si 
_ aelgtonitq edt dtin mottosmnoo nt .fxowemett sdf animiot ea 
oy apenee wpiitns 


i gedanore: 042 lewsiy narheoerq odt ditw sonabtoooe ni dud .er 
 gurot sfgnte to bsaoqnoo o¢ yee egnthlIvom bas Atowemsat oad te 
oncogene [fe sasbas nem yd bsyolgus ed seem dofiw ,norsoss To 
‘egiT) ois enottoss efqmin exedT .bs0sfq ets yeds sottw oi 
rt ~ yanoflon ~€ ;nefgne tYo anthbavom .S -ael3ne oat 3aitetmado ,! 
ian baa exnoliod benidmoo .¢ ;awelfos bas eadbnuot benidmoo ,} 
Te) © «pevoo bas abnnor bentimoo .8 ;eevoo13 ,) jabnoom ,d 
we (8 {RyeW eetdd ai ws990 yen amtot [seed saeds to anortariey 

| Saao nt .d ;olttorqg edt to etatevivo Bnoite seel 10 stom 6 yd 
. vitkmorg geom ak asdtien to 18dt0 ent 19 eno ,amict bentdmeo to 
| )@ed betoennoo. s es bedests ylno ton ai miot eat nedn ,o {dae 
peat: etpdevina & to saeo nk e8 ,mict [enoftiranesd #& es cals 
Bot vise sawolfod [feme bre esvooig ,eteli{ry .eforto #& mont 
—- ebnad gated omit amaa ent ta ,atadwem fnetettib edt stereqee 
f Se iasecs anintot bse gooetiwe telt atelq edt ymedd toannoo of 
q i granes | omaned edt of taettnoo & es svise sand 


61 Towans edt ,etedmem babiake sesat atbeies ylileusoa 
. 0 emtot bawoty es modt tnevet ton bluaoo ysdd Jad? enc! 
: “anes ons mort medt steareqgse ton bluoo bane ,anoktysonon [eoiite 
eine yodt avi? .betoennoo s1e amtot seodt fordn atin anctsstoo 
+ 2e 10 eosiy sno no am10% drvoTg sd¢é Z3nidtimo to eotodo # bed 
a “seer itome: oteselo tnotonme mt ee .1sdtons ao medt 4nttertasoneo 
: or mi se 10 ,bee0 mobl{ee stan dnvod bas offeves edt o1sde saad 
" -samrot ont easdt to besogmoo ste" eisdase taom sisdn oLaso® 


57 
The darker the woodwork and the more distant it is from the e 
eye, the stronger must be the movement of the profiles; ‘polis- 
hed woods and shining paint, varnish and gilding, are suited | 
by the weakest movement. 

According to the view with which the framework is to be arr- 
anged, that the material may appear more prominent around the 
margin of the surface or recede from a nucleus, leaving the 
middle less prominent (compare Tectonics, p. 195,;state ments 
concerning lititing forms), with the other view that ‘concavity 
‘is connected with the representation of attraction and ‘convex- 
‘ity with that of repulsion, determine the profiles of the pie- 
ces forming the framework, in connection with the principles 
previously stated. | 

Not taking any special style or the ancient orders as a bas- 
is, but in accordance with the preceding views, the profiles 
of the framework and mouldings may be composed of simple forms 
of section, which must be employed by men under all conditions 
in which they are placed. These simple sections are (Fig. 37):- 
1, chamfering the angles, 2, rounding off angles; 3, hollons; 
4, combined rounds and hollows; 5, combined hollows and rounds; 
6, rounds; 7, grooves; 8, combined rounds and ‘coves. 

Variations of these basal forms may occur in three ways; 4, 
by a more or less strong curvature of the .protile; b, in case 
of combined forms, one or the other or neither is most promin- 
ent; c, when the form is not only treated as a connected but 
also as a transitional form, as in case of a curvature varying 
frow a circle. Fillets, grooves and small hollows, serve to s 
separate the different members, at the same time being bands 
to connect them; the plain flat surfaces adjoining these mem- 
bers serve as a contrast to the mouldings. 

tf it is asked how the historical styles of architecture have 
actually treated these moulded members, the answer readily fol- 
lows, that they could not invent them as ground forms or geon- 
etrical conceptions, and could not separate them from the ass- 
ociations a#ith which those forms are connected. Thus they only 
had a choice of omitting the ground gorms on one place or of 
concentrating them on another, as in ancient classic architec- 
ture where the cavetto and hound were seldom used, or 4s in 
Cothic where most members were composed of these two forms. 


| ge 

etom xadt gnrdsm yd emrot bavoty seed? yirav blroo yedT 
@ ybestis ayax servis sat to emo dtitn sonebtooos ni ane 
@ ,seoneupse Inetettib nk amtot sit same tse Idytm yeds 
it to ,eabsed bae etollirt yd yiqaede eeal io s10m wens 
“pltootkh ot emtot sat wol!s bas enofeivib saadt sSiszo 
hoa ysm emiot bavotk sgedd ,yllankd .1stto doee 
yd sated afostdo [sisten sort Seviish axtot [atnens 
neers edf bantot t18 aatoss™ eodd ,sevieruedd aaio? 
“dttw savas! Yo stasaviss L[etefen sat stiw sonatto 
boots: of betine amtot otfesf[e ston dftiv .brevnnod bevie 
a tisds  Stetesm Sonaneie¢ned sat Sane evanod edt seldren 
; “has bavot tetisep edt otni east bentotensat ,at0 
B ean di eeuncsd bavot tet1e6p edt san of Antilives ed oT 
Mo) ,ofdto> at beyolqms mobise sew bea 315 netoe1D of 
J .amtot soinioo beliso~og casts seu ssven oF bred TeAso 
y yasosly tisds af otdsveo hae Sap01 edt Seyolyms ointo? 
me wottenys sds ,noiteaesp Jnontsttw anmtot xos315 Iqyeooer 
miitg s ef ,exaetD edt yd oben of st9en yedt sansoed ylsien 
tix tee of ei ti ~eenseron of yltfoerth teom ebael tede 
/?8om etos 120 .ayrot on bed siesy) edt senaned erezait 
bob ew yin Stegifvasvnt geum sx ,t9qeeh anintanoa no be 
‘sd teow 05 su dada ylsarsvnoo On& .1SsdJons brova bone 
asdtedw wsttem on <amoeeet bool TOT? One sabsfrona [fut 
eton 10 eemid teag nf evitetetonitus sice 

,edt te Oniterxs enogest svterosh taeom add to sn0 
td? ono ob of ,tent 10 yew Biot ep afsqmoo doidn paid 


oe 
ray 


et hes 


5 am : 
i oa @ 
Ly * 
i} « Fat 5 
La’ 
‘ he fr ” he 


> zeae bra’ taon edt to Sugaods 8 yi tnemteots dd nf ben 
etsnen edt .anson seslquie edt yd tostts tastse13 edt nist 
apm teom nieol {fata aw :antisneg haqoieveb ¢ifst teom 
ath a -nwo 10 to tnom#eetd eat of -mottales ot 
©1 Jk tasisnes to tostte ef% to tasmorfopet edt mO1e 
wtis on stenin ;betsntedia od Seum autot elttory tads 
fquh d3in esorsmmoo fordn ,bsopbotq sr Sathsolisvo bauct 
tdgnons Yo yfteveq bas yrotonom to foette edd esoubotd fae 
) betebtanco od blyote anorteotfynh cone .eeendott to baste 
Yo anoeest tot acne [enorttqeoxs nt sldarresh sie yedt aedw 
“sien enogest seeds amntdivom neboow 10% .yonoos 
eee ab teoo sit ,su9 et bauer oe & IO SvOo 6 ‘Isddedx 


58 
They could vary these ground forms by making them more promin- 
ent in accordance with one of the three says already mentioned, 
they might arrange the forms in different sequences, separating 
them more or less sharply by fillets and bands, or they could 
omit these divisions and allow the forms to directly adjoin 
each other. Finally, these ground forms may represent the orn- 
amental forms derived from natural objects borne by the ground 
forms themselves; thus frecian art formed the cymatium “in abe- 
ordance with the natural curvature of leaves with ‘points rec- 
urved downward, with more elastic forms suited to. the delicate 
marble; the Romans and the Renaissance masters, their success- 
ors, transformed these into the quarter round and cornice forms. 
To be unwilling to use the quarter round because it was unknown 
to Crecian art and was seldom employed in Cothic, or on the o 
other hand to never use these so-called cornice forms, because 
Cothic employed the round and cavetto in their places, or to 
accept Greek forms without question, the 'cymatium and ‘cornice, 
merely because they were so made by the Greeks, is a principle 
that leads most directly to nonsense, it is to eat with the 
fingers because the Greeks had no forks. Our acts must te bas- 
ed on something deeper, we must investigate why we do one thing 
and avoid another, and conversely what we do must be done with 
full knowledge and for good reasons, no matter whether these 
were authoratative in past times or not. 

One of the most decisive reasons existing at the present 
time, which compels us this way or that, to do one thing and 
avoid another, is the question of ‘cost. We are always restrai- 
ned‘in th treatment by a thought of the»cost, and seek to ob- 
tain the greatest effect by the simplest means. The Renaissance 
most fully developed paneling; we shall learn most from that 
in relation to the treatment of our own. 

From the requirement of the effect of contrast it results, 
that profile forms must be alternated; where no alternation is 
found overloading ‘is produced, which commences with duplication 
and produces the effect of monotony and poverty of thought, in- 
stead of richness. Such duplications should be considered only 
when they are desirable in exceptional cases for reasons of e 
economy. For wooden mouldinms these reasons entirely disappear; 
ahether a cove or a quarter round is cut, the cost is approxi- 


3 L) f ¥ 
_) : i ni i’ iD , ’ ij i 7 Aff owe ' 7 
TT pk Lie uy a Ware, < ‘(es or , ’ 
m . : . ¥ a ; PT nate: Seer, 4 ; vy A) 
ae, = . Ait , 


‘iw . oo @ 
4 i A 
i” 2% ‘ a i aaa : ican © 
at spd ve a one ) ae oe 
om < Aa re - 6 ee 4 
¢é i : s 
af ne R 


pes 7 


ao 
eclelhass bad Binoy Se08! Ph woman set Ueteuixorgys | 
i 0 bebfovs ed of stoteisds ers bat rodel evom situper 
woffod beyolgms elute ordtoD eAT .eseeo Isnoidqeoxs of 
ansttib bolism y1ev sbem bas .tedto pre edt stom ebngor 
ished oa ano? bevisD seodt to enoftoes baa frhex eat ot 
mer’ seteertros avitos 
Sao 18 yieitevy bas testinoo to etnemetiopet sal 
ak stotesiedT .ee1evet edt to basot ¢ ewollod wollad 
denies aetisup & ,auttamyo add ,nokdose to ento% xevaco 
Bin tn Jon tod ,ottseveo edt wollo?t yam bavor 
q [iste efter to miot dotdw tebtenco yedtant tenn sii 
ot fete “gaedt to foidw bas .x8vm0o fo esveonto tentedn .sdenk 
ss axtts to notaseigat 910 yevnoo vino ton emsot sveono? .neeodo 
Brottians1? sts yedd sonte ,eknad> to gedt osls tud noid 
sy Bi eriisccsern: v: nA Bas1gxs emiot xevnoo ytattaoos edd no 
nest ‘ba atbomistnt ote ,mektemyo dd atl ,xevaoo-oveoneo sal 
bensttoe yared yiixevnoo to fesiiaes grade 6d% ont oat 
I bez ¥tbo» ed {ftw sagit09 sa% to noreserqxe enT .10% beteg 
wy eYiizxevnoo to sonsaimobaty oft Atrw sonabroooe 
2ofons sonsagtanes: metfeatI sat? to eitowement teentt eat 
GO Sis oO Sno zemHess Notte .kniblnom tebt60d & yd Aton atitne 
yoga geosty ent sesonstemmorts of Ankbrscson atot 19 
Ss Ai 347) Snooty mednwa & wt0t 10 tal? niewor X1OWeMET? 
“wee ete) esnementio ae, sdapshnetioeginte 7 bete1c0eb ete 


| ” Shasitcs 918 wntalg tte{ wdtis see eleneg sat .ebned 
) Lotttuess vd bentobs 978 yifentt xo .efeneq bnomerh beei 
eBGSIsee1 Deigt 
tiv —— adt beaofons nemitemoe sonseaisned vesel oa? 
gy ns antesso ,2anitbi[pom to emtot Bartosiorg ylaaore 
, as ie fansq sd¢ mot ware tisett weth feitestem ant ti ee 
Vege s80707 
E ‘8 yw betstoosh ase sofmtoo ent cientot to eiton tadoit at 
- fegertes ody ,eupkins sit retts sevasl bavieo ddtw seitenys 
bedmemenio asx otdeveo ett ors beed [1meg 6 of bezneno ase 
Bs ae stein iis bendainnsientc icon 992) .amofeion’ noinwe 


59 
approximately the same. At most round and deeply sunk forms r 
require more labor and are therefore to be avoided or limited 
to exceptional cases. The Cothic style employed hollows and 
rounds more than any other, and made very marked differences 
‘in the radii and sections of those curved forms to obtain eff- 
ective ‘contrasts. 

The requirements of contrast and variety are fulfilled if a 
hollow follows a round or the reverse. Therefore in concavo- 
convex forms of section, the cymatium, a quarter round or 
round may follow the cavetto, but not another ‘cavetto. 

we must further consider which form of profile shall predon- 
inate, whether concave or convex, and which of these shall be 
chosen. Concave forms not only convey the impression of attrac- 
tion but also that of change, since they are transitional forms; 
on the contrary convex forms express an energetic repulsion. 
The concavo-convex, like the cymatinn, are intermediate between 
the two, the sharp contrast of convexity being softened or pre- 
pared for. The expression of the corana will be modified in a 
accordance with the predominance of convexity. 

The finest frameworks of the Italian Renaissance enclose the 
entire work by a border moulding, which assumes one or the oth- 
er form according to circumstances; the pieces composing the 
framework remain flat or form a sunken ground (Fig. 88), or 
are decorated by intarsias, sculptured ornaments or designs 1 
like bands. The richest decoration is concentrated on the space 
between the bodder and the panel; this member -is often ‘composed 
of pieces and bordered on both sides by mouldings, is finished 
as diamond panels (Fig. 89) or are decorated by ornaments “in 
bands. The panels are either left plain, are finished with ra- 
ised diamond panels, or finally are adorned by beautiful sculp- 
tured resettes. 

The later Renaissance sometimes enclosed the panels with very 
strongly projecting forms of mouldings, ‘causing an appearance 
as if the material drew itself away from the panel with great 
force. 

In richer works of joinery the cornice was decorated by ac 
cymatium with carved leaves after the antique, the astragal 
was changed to a pearl bead and the cavetto was ornamented by 
sunken incisions. (See Redtenbacher’s Joinery). There exists 


03 
9g) bas egnidison tsel Saptins essed? Bnisttao 10% noRset on 
ak bes " -8iT0%" I90 mort ahead 
e inde akan ~8100b 10% beas yidereterg ef satlensd 
ee saga pene midt Boe ognifieo neboou .ststinis? .tooanisn 
pew ;  easotttel 62 
te ae aoe 818 alonien: edd If soitsel s aanoced sntlened 
; ie : «betata ybeer - 


2 antoslq yi betoutteanco tediie ss4 esottial yiantbha0 
oot If 10 ,ted¢9R30¢% sedt anidoton 10 1SdIo dose 3asvoO 
2 -8LT) mivowtetni os yond sidixelt baa mids wrev ere 
tt } sas aqitts sid to enottosatetnt edt esago teri? ont end 
So taal odd ni: ytseesoenny ai oninstest tod .elisn yd 
ed tO ,9mart a wh bagolone ylsialqmoo sc yam sotsial 
Ssev bas L[atnosiiod ed yeu eqtitea edt .sext bao of as 
| eotssal as hebiske1 od of ote gael sat. pbeantfont to (Ie 
, 4. 10 qedso. dose, sao10e bial agkite to betourtenco esorsésl 
a. 8 Yh ,eatol to yetisv tae1g 10% yinus10qqo Svty zsAtexor 
nokeved msenif oft of noitelo1 ni avinotoeT ym ni bantaly 
“G09 tuo sezbes afeds sved agiite steteqes ent ,esostane 
eer on | e(e SC .3f%) wsteye aesMtl yne atin sonsbto 

7) nwode svsd Stutoetrdota asiletl yliss bas serrtool! 
e({S2 ,€2 .e829) seotttal seedt rot sonsrsterg 

) ees mi HSesantario esoistel antterooeh to shom bnooes 4 
te 2qinte sd2 to eakbs sat anittoo to eteianoo bas sede 
ve 1) enottarotrsg stsiquoo mot yam atuo.eaedl .snofs agains 
ates egatheqo sat of Arivesl baviso od yino yam yest ro (ae 
aes t ania beau doom ean svidon vist 5(30 .327) sqede staccer 
S19n, esoeqe odd dofdw ai ,e1005 tot eeks slbbin oxidase 
Siensq dtin gnifensy sot neve bos ,ebtsod to ininil 8 yd. 
: . beldsy to alien ont rot cals ,aslit bane secpslg sotfojar 
“} svitom emae odt bentate: soneseatansh ed? .etsvosead ts 26 oe 
; apa nt domudo £ eitl atoob tq nottooitencs 91% x01 
B® 44 Senclone fon ti sext bas, eqinte edt tads tnadtve ties 
. of bamtotanend ed ysm encktoserstai sdd te alten edt bar . ene 
a peda ems asvis, ybastle asiat saT .sattenot bne edond Later 
Bice «neme1t 943 oF sf 
 yanokgan cAsemiad yi betnevar een sottiel Yo mic? astinced 4 . 
| escittel seeds jamete oodmad bsyolqus odw seanidd oad yt terst 
NVQ -234%) t9dtepot denonet ateduem baoot steteqes to terecoo 
odd bis tent etntol,, 1f9dd te erniffena ystond mint yeas < (80 


+ Ba et 


60 
no reason for omitting these antique leaf mouldings and pearl 
beads from our works. 

Paneling is preferably used for doors, windows, shutters, 
aainscot, furniture, uooden ceilingu and thir partitions. 

e. Lattices. | 

Paneling becomes a lattice if the panels are omitted, as al- 
ready stated. | 

Ordinary lattices are either constructed by placing strips 
over each other or notching them together, or if the strips 
are verw: thin and flexible they are interwovin (Fig. 90). In 
the two first cases the intersections of the strips are fixed 
by nails, but fastening is unnecessary in the last case. The 
lattice may be completely enclosed iin a frame, or be suspended 
as to end free, the strips may be horizontal and vertical (Pig. 
91) or-inclined; the last are to be regarded as lattice girders. 
Lattices constructed of strips laid across each other or halved 
together give opportunity for great variety of forms, if as ex- 
plained in my Tectonics in relation to the linear division of 
surfaces, the separate strips have their edges cut out in acc- 
ordance with any linear system (Fig. 92 a). 

Moorish and early Italian architecture have shown a special 
preference for these lattices (Figs. 93, 94). 

A second mode of decorating lattices originated in the middle 
ages and consists of cutting the edges of the strips at the op- 
enings alone. These cuts may form complete perforations (Fig. 
95) or they may only be carved leaving to the openings their 
square shape (Fig. 96); this motive was much used during the. 
entire middle ages for doors, in which the spaces were closed 
by a linince of boards, and even for paneling with panels of 
majolica plaques and tiles, also for the walls of gabled hous- 
es as at Beauvais. The Renaissance retained the same motive f 
for the construction of doors like a church in peventer. It is 
self evident that the strips end free if not enclosed by a fr- 
ame, and the nails at the intersections may be transformed to 
metal knobs and rosettes. The rules already given are applica- 
ble to the frames. 

A peculiar form of lattice was invented by oriental nations, 
first by the Chinese who employed bamboo stems; these lattices 
consist of separate round members tenoned together (Figs. 97, 
98); they form knotty swellings at their joints that aid the 


: red 4 a mai! 14 q Tee “A 2 oe = or! The ae Ae 
pe Ji fi 7s ® s yf “4 , i" 2 ha 
. a fe i sy 


. a tedt of sotstel aiid Yo sstanetd A .tostts ottetsre 
tk bas ,enorten [etnstio déin stisovel « oafs een aginte tel 
8 | 6 emtot beitav jeom sdt ar etnersznette2 OF Sait ESV IZ 
. of bas .(02 .2i7) eqttte sit Yo nottoeateint to shbom sit od 
_ Sviao yJ deoelger o18 codasd sit Yo toni edt dotdn at yan edt 
' ad of seoittel aotist#l yites bas devA at es ,amtol Ifs towbar . 
‘tae se y: «mo08 bedrrogel 
rotten detA yd sbaa asw asottis! to taemgoleveb teddiwt A 
| boo to ssostq sisupa wort beviso to bea? seoerq: Baten yd 
: _2fo9 st9% dotdn bas ,eqitta meboor to awete codmsd ‘to bastent 
eat -(tayat “azeda o=§) ~(OOL 3%) antag baa ealod yd bstoan 
— mqadip edt nt betsers amtot to agqeoty teenil anttosanoo te esbor 
~agolbns e716 fotdw ,emesieye sotttel of nefowsh 20rnofosT to Tel 
“yem \austeya ofseon fae ytebtowdws cms brs dew MF .daitay yf 
fe ss fokdx ,bati etait to seottial 10% staed s ee beyofgns od 
 atetat dtitw dtowten dtin mort dsoubo1q od yeu benoktnen ybeot 
+8 0 beesd sie xeotitsl dsth gnem dso1g A .amiot ented ‘nesow 
pe eb it zemeteye isito bane sotttal djtw antedo to noftantdwoo 
gtemob eitine sdt yovine of sidiesoymt at tr dent tnebive tise 
_hesog satine efi diin asotttel Yo aottowisenoo to shon eLds to 
 fesrstet od {fe yam yods tent 2nitestetnt et 2k tud >. eottilic 
wie ae esolgionrig alyate. wet 6 at 
antag atipiniien yd ebem od neo esortial rot anoidentdgose ws, 
Sepbet anied neat seosqa sat ,diowboow Yo Stontens asntd Lsyto 
~@noLta1oo9b 10 notre tdasom  etin to atoomento yt eatea nk beo 
een Ff “i eiatom teso To 
Gas enottiiae, tAat{ 103 yfdaristesg sts peonttel to sees sal 
yedT setehttz soitsal ext ettoqque as sviee of 10° es1s20l9n° 
Sé{poq .esteeolone bas enot{iveq nebis3 10t tnellooxsroala ste 


De Dei - ,segoging weitate bone ebtay yt 
a eAMOW todaiT+t1sh .¢ 
: gguod? ,allaw gattouwenod to sbom s si drow betedasd tied 


; ae “fd? etoten etc wott toy ,yntfensg datiw tr seaefo Sileow mod ais 

gnewettih ati sacacsd ,nottouttenco boow of agnoied ylxsgorg 
seedtT .notsoottenco ni tieq tne1sttib ylerktns os yely etnomols 
ened se es (SOF .f0l .ebt®) [fre s mo ~:enolfot as sis atnanols 
omett eta? .4 eoala s yd botosamoo anied seedt ,9 edaog tea ox 
-yete ste d bre & eisdmrt eft eesiny mrot efdess ® ad ton bbpow 
grfosid tiedd netiise 9 et1ig oat 35 sooetd To avoids sat yd be 


61 
artistic effect. A transfer of this lattice to that formed of 
flat strips was also a favorite with oriental nations, and it 
sives rise to arrangements in the most varied forms according 
to the mode of intersection of the strips (Fig. 99), and to 
the way in which the knots of the bamboo are replaced by carv- 
‘ings of all forms, as in Arab and early Italion lattices to be 
described soon. 

A further development of lattices was made by Arab nations 
by asing pieces turned or carved from square pieces of wood, 
instead of bamboo stems or wooden strips, and which were con- 
nected by holes and pins (Fig. 100). (See Ebers’ Egypt). The 
modes of connecting linear groups of forms treated in the Chap- 
ter of Tectonics devotem to lattice systems, which are endless- 
ly varied, the web and manr: emproidery and mosaic systems, may 
be employed as a basis for lattices of this kind, which as al- 
ready mentioned may be produced from with network with inter-_ 
woeen turned forms. A great many Arab lattices are based on a 
combination of chains with lattice and other systems; it is s 
self evident that it is impossible to survey the entire domain 
of this mode of construction of lattices with its entire possi- 
bilities, but it is interesting that they may all be referred 
to a few simple principles. 

New combinations for lattices can be made by makingiits prin- 
cipal lines a network of woodwork, the spaces then being redu- 
ced in size by ornaments of wire, wrought iron or decorations 
of cast metal. 

The uses of lattices are preferably for light partitions and 
enclosures or to serve as supports like lattice girders. They 
are also excellent for garden pavilions and enclosures, poult- 
ry yards and similar purposes. 

5. Half-Timber Work. 

Half timbered work is a mode of constructing walls, though 
its Gorm would class it with paneling, yet from its nature it 
properly belongs to wood construction, because its different 
elements play an entirely different part in construction. These 
elements are as follows:- on a sill (Figs. 101, 102) as a base 
are set posts c, these being connected by a plate b. This frame 
woudd not be a stable form unless the timbers a and b are stay- 
ed by the struts or braces 4; the girts e stiffen their bracing 


$3 
yg feneq asifene otek drow wedett-tled edd ebivis qedtapt bane 
ga drow ait edem of ytsmosewo af Ji vents mishom two Al 
bre evednit sdgterte yIno Bntau .sidiesog 96 m102 nx sAalegor 
- 28 ue toetts ni ytstisv to ezetnevbs sat grtottinosa yWearedd 
2 nes ‘bane tostisq stom edt ni tnemevotqar yas yisorsoe anintesdo 
of [supe yleseamixotqas antemss ford ,coitouttenco is_Zn01te 
asters: yo ,fOI .2fF mt as begneris yirsluge1 d1t0w t9dar4 
Me oo SOD .3i7 mf Ge 
noo edt 14 S187 tnstioqyat teom esi eyela son tOdmit-Tleii 
-  tedatt to nortouitanco sit ni neds dns aeeentd to noksourte 
wis "  see3brid to arebirp 
AoW sedmit~tled Yo tnsmteets otfettes sot 10% sevison oT 
adt aot oTS0 TET edt to inemeznerts Sas atot sas mort tlueet 
Iftt to bom eff mort es [fon es .mortosstetart areas to stom 
| ar oR9O87HISTNI OOF Bat 
-svad ew ees eyew sucitev nt begrsais ed yam exvedats~Tisd ent 
90 seluge1 to (en edt yd eben 9d blvode sonsistich s bas ,mese 
Sax OF Bnibioo;s ,et1ty baa sensed ifed¢ bus aleneq telegeite 
ont aevik nizo% .[&tnemsnto 10 Istusonise 90 Seoqging sat 19dd 
_ smidt-tied to as[qmexs edt aeseuod ashooW tretone to elrased ets 
$e seenod ar aoitaixe ae -fOI 237 ar Hetnseetqges dtow 19d 
=ag edt to atnomegnatie tnetettrh to mottenisdie #4 .angaivod 
stew yedt ti aedd ,footte ntaeslq stom & sved syste Liew elo 
-ntd-tisd gnieesla teon sdT .ysn omse set yitosxs al betsers Ile 
-me base eszxeiliv tneessg sit mi baviseasig need svad asavod isd 
eed aoktouttanco nmsboow dofrdw of eakitmwoo seodt to seriro Iie 
-s98 svitovitent yrsv dididxe ylénsupett yods \beivetagg need 
eereblind ttedt nk gatlest fxs eott 8 to sonsbive ote for ,als 
to yeiiaveg niedtwor bona Snalyestind to eseucn sdt slgmexe at 
hi enidh oa% to ,sidave to asevod asboew sad , for? ena 
sot ,bnaland .yswiot to seods ,89ns1a to ,saesh to * 
; poow nt arsdmit bavie> yiletostiaie to yllewten to sen eat 
~ One yrev sd yen .emiot Sesviso ofnt tuo seen? 10 ,voftoutsenco 
ar dvow vedmrt-Tied most bebasoerh yltenutae aren sasdst ptoes 
#141 sid to siptostidors neboon sad ,ee3e ofdbtm sat .smod quc 
bertove? ,bneliestine to tedt es [fen se ,eiteved tsqqu bas fo 
atedt mi amtot uaieaslg haintstdo to enasa eidt to sen odd 
oATOK tednti-tled 
enortsiten({[t ss bebbe ored ote emtot dose to aelyraxe net & 


62 
and further divide the half-timber work into smaller panels. 

In our modern times it is customary to make this work as 
regular in form as possible, using only straight timbers and 
thereby sacrificing the advantage of variety in effect and 
obtaining scarcely any improvement in the more perfect and 
stronger construction, which remains approximately equal to 
timber work regularly arranged as in Fig. 101, or irregularly 
as in Fig. 102. 

Half-timber work plays its most important part ir the con- 
struction of trusses and then in the construction of timber 
girders of bridges. : 

The motives for the esthetic treatment of half-timber work 
result from the form and arrangement of the timbers, from the 
mode of their intersection, as well as from the mode of fill- 
ing the interspaces. 

The half-timbers may be arranged in various ways as we have 
seen, and a difference should be made by the us) of régular or 
irregular panels and their braces and girts, according to whe- 
ther the purpose be structural or ornamental. Pugin gives in 
his Details of ancient Wooden Houses the examples of half-tim- 
ber work represented in Fig. 103, as existing in houses at 
Boulogne. An alternation of different arrangements of the .pan- 
els will always have a more pleasin:: effect, than if they were 
all treated in exactly the same way. The most pleasing half-tin- 
ber houses have been preserved in the peasant villages and sm- 
all cities of those countries in which wooden construction has 
been preferred; they frequently exhibit very instructive deta- 
‘ils, and are evidence of a true art feeling in their builders. 
for example the houses of Switzerland and southern pavaria, of 
the Tyrol, the wooden houses of Swabia, of the Rhine provinces, 
of Hesse, of Srance, those of Norway, England, etc. 

The use of naturally or artificially curved timbers in wood 
constructiou, or those cut into curved forms, may be very anc- 
ient; these were unjustly discarded from half-timber work in 
our tome. The middle ages, the wooden architecture of the Tyr- 
ol and upper Bavaria, as well as that of Switzerland, favored 
the use of this means of obtaining pleasing forms im their 
half-timber work. 

A fen examples of such forms are here added as illustrations 


fovea) kek bOE: sgt) etneasdg anteeet Yo xeevod oft mor’ 
fa edt ,bstsi099b ad of sce e1edat? edt. to sepet odd 2] 
qi betetoosh ed of ers noisessqmoo of toe dua yriad 
© 1iedd bas ,atiogqee sisl setedtanel neg iiteubesa fay. 20 
» notenet at gnied et1tz eft tod .retolov af bac yeu aetas 
y's isnt ee De Peretti. | sebasd sitll ensetts, wi besiietoarado 9d 
“ft one A # mk bete1ooeb sd nso evedait edt Yo anortoesisént eal 
| feyestbom nit noanco esx dotdn bna ,untloneg tot bediaoesb rom, 
in bay ‘i hee »- » e(ddgia .d0L, .2i7) erstostiniors asboom aeine Dne 
os ae ey pellit tedéte eve Aton tedmid-tiad to aepsge sat. 
t sed m0 beoslg. ti gnieeslq taom at doftiw ,abisoed to gnt 
i a (2 dotdy sot ,atowdotid beretesiqnn yd to flaw sad to 
: an av visee! to ,eteiaqotqge yllatoeges ek baod Iadnemante 
as ‘Yo x Ri mk besaeaenso ed nedt yee gninetestg ara? .yscorsn betes 
gs down .sa0 att no rested) edt at benottnen ydserle syaw edd 
aieq y ao,tetier ni etnomsnto ,ofittsaiys ,esdododa bap iona ys 
Whit yd bellit ak eonegele Leioeqe to drow tedars-tlsll sean 
: eesopelg sigoo 27182 10 
m to sautonttes eff Yo na@itetebianco # of mofi robe nd... 
 estsle dtiw allan oat yaitevoo sottnaed of svad [Irae 
| rp Ode ppolaa 
Yo asbom seedt fife to eteead ent ef astays orseom ant 
“aeent{ edt mort bevitsbd od ysm esvitom blotiasw Sas ,alis», gn 
A auiiaaal mt as atnsnle Ineut3a00 isin sooeitue Yo noreiveh 
; ae 2 ‘ eORIIIN. .g , ~e 
hohe “an | vaielities snote betissv-nolt .f 
a Yo. noston1Fen09 edt ean stndostifnowe Inerons Yo [esbi ent. 
tok and ti tod .enote Yo adale one emesd atin eyailiso snote 
99 aed erode ed¢ ¢09 .satt svo tot salsv Leotstosig Ila yios are 
; eosly on tI .a0 10% sulsv [sotlodnya & bantsde: eved gantiieo 
_ )foeatng00e7 bas ,tntoghaetea [etrseten yletwy # so sevieaice 
sw ety .e8o0qisg [atistan « sevise tein ylno avieoteg qilsinse 
- motauo: on wolle bas sonsoetninen [e2ottotart yieve yews gids 
: edd norst nedt blvoda ow ,toerz00 ed of semtd taaq to sgsee to 
| yam gm 10% ,soot tedmel Leottosetd odd odnk Batlreo msed snode 
pe ansom yd, ylqsedo stom bas testes bne Seriseb edt misais 
Po ing et ee , -coitoutianco, no1i yd to etd 
ee to tates [eneneh end no seviseiwo soalg ex tM tod 
Dede neseted detognizeth ot yitoemtoo non wond feun on Senn 


4, 


rs 


are ee ee 


63 
from the houses of Hessian peasants (Fig. 104). | 

If the faces of the timbers are to be decorated, the struts 
being subject to compression are to be decorated by incised 
er.paintedcistripes lengthwise like supports, and their ornan- 
ents may end in volutes, but the girts being in tension are to 
be characterized by patterns like bands. 

The intersections of the timbers can be decorated in the man- 
ner described for paneling, and which was common in nediaeval 
and Swiss wooden architecture (Pig. 104, right). 

The spaces of half-timber work are either filled by a cover- 
ing of boards, which is most pleasing if placed on the inside 
of the wall, or by unplastered brickwork, for which a purely 
ornamental bond is especially appropriate, or lastly by plast- 
ered masonry. This plastering may then be ornamented in any of 
the ways already mentioned in the Chapter on its use, such as 
by incisad sketches, sgraffito, ornaments in relief,or painti- 
ngs.e Half-timber work of special elegance is filled by tiles ; 
or terra cotta plaques. 

In addition to a consideration of the structure of walls, we 
still have to mention covering the walls with seis shingles, 
tiles, etc. 

The mosaic system is the basis of all these modes of .coveri- 
ng walls, and markifold motives may be derived from the linear 
division of surfaces with congruent elements as in Fig. 10,6 

Be CEILINGS. 
1. Non-vaulted stone ceilings. 

The ideal of ancient architecture was the construction of 
stone ceilings with beams and slabs of stone, but it has lost 
nearly all practical value for our time. But the stone beam 
ceilingw have retained a symbolical value for us. If we place 
ourselves on a purely material standpoint, and recognize or 
mentally perceive only what serves a material purpose, if se 
strip away every wWistorical reminiscence and allow no custom 
or usage of past times to be correct, we should then throw the 
stone beam ceiling into the historical lumber room, for me may 
attain the desired end better and more cheaply by means of vau- 
kts or by iron construction. 

But if we place ourselves on the general point of mankind, 
ahere ae must know how correctly to distinguish between what 


i Sede bas nottenittteat [Aottoteta yratogms? «© tot ast 
ue ai tedt batt (fede ew .smit Ile tot selav tnertenrsy 
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o1 ylleaokfodnye ead tod ,tdzwodt to shom ati nt Fine « 
fges bane .an Onicsd wet Brkyf stil to ashom to esonatdmecs? 
B ol 70 esitnomeiso [eitomsen ak ae anctesooo [sisega no «weds 
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fr beteartacI([t bus tedt1s? tohoods atde betrteo Sw . 8207 
notinstie [I[ao sted [iade 8 .eelqmexs trenttr1eg wat 
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om: _ oni 8 BA bean qite & ,s9note tent02 Bntye!l af Leno 
5 ft “ect{  {sotfodnye emoosd asen teds jtomod Yo I1fh Yo In 
weston Bas bred to ascety reisez0% Qniddss yd ert? Yo rotdoub 
-ebsu anol evan ted? ,anotten to eetnomeies eds nk door 
oe etebart bas feove (tart? 
got agai tees smote yolume of tdgit # sved [f[tfe etoteisds of 
: - ~ orm “Stom fas add nistis bipos sx Yk mavs ,eseo710e2 feebt 
amen rertce yi esis sd? wsvoo blooo Oae ,ensen tadto yd ylfe 
 .{eauseon fis base sefotsdo ,erueloepam .a2dvos to seo me ylisis 
- efdteaca yino ei smssd snote to cap fovea tedttnebive tise at tt 
gq baodes & 3uf .83001 Sit to eaenvortan ht ys bedtinws node 
edd nt edtaofosT mi bestnzooes .evolfot tilsiuten sfaronia 
: $d fom teom eyntifeo mesd onote tats .biow edt Yo sanse suxt 
sed snote to 25 edt nedw ,istteier tonto 10 boon ni bedesioi 
go oalet 4 e808set yIsinnsey To stvate aot sldreesogar esnod 
| | Bas aasioe1D-col ead yd heonbortnt tend oAtl wetlodmye bec 
7 =x8' Sid ni etatanco sf{qoeq bnoce yllaoisatsi1e ns yd bess revert 
sib agg eo metlodsys ent s tod .gntnd «© to mottetint Seni 
« Unslints e590 eneem tsitmte to ena besseqe1 eds most tive 
‘ oa ® dfiw etinevs ea0 nao oe TI .amoks rbnod antticrl 
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ao “ednemgnon ody at bavot seodt nett ,egnt{teo snote yd berevoo 
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ed [fede ew ,adale snove yvsed to beetent euaed seait no fasten 
_ sf0nttenoo si Saifteo e IT seneqe tebiw [{ite r9v0o of befdene 
 @ Bloon gntiiso est to escsqe sit .auasd fork to msboon to be 
— yleomsse ‘edst nso ow Ylfsiqd .eldaem Yo edele yw bsllit od ton 
,2m70T of Tennam sett bre Isnottet s ni en Satbacl eatwcs «ne 


— 


‘4 


64 
has but a temporary historical justification and what has a p 
permanent value for all time, we shall find that in spite of 
differences of race, language and people, mankind is not only 
a unit in its mode of thought, but has symbolically retained 
remembrances of modes of life lying far behind us, and employs 
them on special occasions as ‘gn memorial ceremonies or monun- 
ents. In Tectonics in explaining the relations of form and pur- 
pose, we carried this thought farther and illustrated it by a | 
fen pertinent examples. We shall here call attention to the 
fact that objects become purely symbolical, when their origin- 
al purpose no longer exists, as in the case of the hammer and 
trowel in laying corner stones, a ship used as a table orname- 
nt or gift of honor; that uses become symbolical, like the pro- 
duction of fire by rubbing together pieces of hard and soft w 
#ood in the ceremonies of nations, that have long made use of 
flint, steel and tinder. 

We therefore still have a right to employ stone ceilings for 
ideal purposes, even if we could attain the end more economic- 
ally by other means, and could cover the area by vaults, espe- 
cially in case of tombs, mausoleums, churches and art museums; 
it is self evidentthat such use of stone beams is only possible 
ahen permitted by the narrowness of the roogs. But a second ip 
principle naturally follows, recognized in Tectonics in the 
true sense of the word, that stone beam ceilings must not be 
imitated in wood or other material, when the use of stone be- 
comes impossible for static or pecuniary reasons. A false or 
bad symbolism like that introduced by the Neo-CGrecians and 
never used by an artistically sound people consists ‘in the ex- 
ternal imitation of a thing, but a true symbolism can only re- 
sult from the repeated use of similar means under similarly 
limiting conditions. If we can use granite with a resistance 
to fracture greater than that of marble, wider rooms may be 
covered by stone ceilings, than those found in the monuments 
of classic antiquity; if we place light plates of glass or 
metal on these beams ‘instead of heavy stone slabs, we shall be 
enabled to cover still wider spans. If a ceiling is construct- 
ed of wooden or iron beams, the spaces of the ceiling would n 
not be filled by slabs of marble. Briefly we can take scarcely 
ane course leading us in a rational and free manner to forms, 


—— nt 
EE ———————— 


e3 

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op 1 etinsions 
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ed2 ,bersvoo od of et allen ond 10 amead anose 
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ab ddgisx edt nedw.noiord yiraas veel et If eonte bee 
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o fais peenoy fotde ,entd> wt ansyol to eabiad.eod ns 
> edd nt ebin .3% 3D tuvods acted dose .anninego O0f€. yd_see 
0% s9iq dose wort biel exe sidtem AssiId Yo amass, } 
it saesenos atinen beoslg e18 19tq foes Yo ebns ed3 ao bag 
aK saat eanotlt gatidreze: ebie.eno te 

SAn Of Bathiooos yen tsitone af bavlos ed (su welder. sd7-, 
® sie ,e1e you? tI .ton 10 sidede ete atnontoda edt ve 
mINe OF 16 19to dose teniegs asnote ont eoelg of. ai ebos 

$ mottibnos edt ads ,(80r 28%) m1ot bedo1s as oe moat 
Bieeb yan ew [et8093 nI .advemtads sat no gile don teur 
rofqme egntites anitourtencs to esbon wsligie Das. sacds 
) _anyonitiiht es ,eneisyeed bas ensoansss saneisa yal 


aie psi 


eou 918 atroqgue eaoin ,astatouisa ak eek bath feduap 
yeto1g of e808 bils ete enote Yo eneog otacrds 6. teiger 
is M neqa oat ,mtot lebimeryg Sedteval ae af, 19030. hose: Dao 
ania 6 yd betevoo sd meso god te gninsgo sd? Lida Deosbe. suas 
New te (QOL. -8t8). enote sf 
ow yeh dnsesig edt of sentt tesilise eat wort elgqioasiy eral. 
rot Bozseront ng etedn smote to sgutlies ifs of betosateet aex 
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omg efgaia 2 yd Seouborg at -aieiiainianaiine to. aot dse{gaie. sat 


65 
suitable for stone ceilings different from that pursued by the 
ancients. 

If we now place ourselves on a purely material standpoint, 
the motive employed in the construction of stone ceilings may 
be derived from the problem itself. If the space between two 
stone beams or two walls is to be covered, the method first 
suggested is to cover it with a single stone (Fig. 106). To 
shed rain water we incline its top toward two or four sides, 
and since it is less easily broken when its weight is reduced, 
ne may hollow out its under surface. The largest ceiling stone 
ever yet employed is that of the tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna, 
which has the forn) of a low dome about 32.8 ft. diameter. 

If the span between the two supports, whether stone beams, 
walls or rocks, ‘is too great. to be covered by a single stone, 
it is simplest to place several stones side by side (Fig. 107). 
The grandest use made of this simple structural principle is 
‘in the bridge of Loyang ir China, which crosses an arm of the 
sea by 300 openings, each being about 46 ft. wide in the clear; 
7 veams of black marble are laid from each pier to the next, 
and on the ends of each pier are placed marble monsters, those 
at one side resembling lions. 

The problem may be solved in another way according to wheth- 
er the abutments are stable or not. If they are, the simplest 
mode is to place two stones against each other or to arrange 
them in an arched form (Fig. 108), with the condition that they 
must not slip on the abutmeuts. In seneral we may designate t 
these and similar modes of constructing ceilings employed by 
Egyptians, Etruscans and Assyrians, as preclassical structural 
methods. To these is allied the widely employed principle of 
corbelling used in structures, whose supports are unable to 
resist a thrust. Beams of stone are alid so as to project bey- 
ond each other in an inverted pyramidal form, the span being 
thus reduced until the opening at top can be covered by a sin- 
gle stone (Fig. 109). 

. This principle from the earliest times to the present day w 
was restricted to all ceilirgs of stone where an increased he- 
ight was permissible; its highest development occurred im the 
the stone broach spires of the Romanesque and Cothic styles. 

The simplest form of corbelling is produced by a single pro- 


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| /ed yem alsdioo saT .ese80 brodee sid nit eael baa ters’ 
sega 10 yliaag yd wdtie .aysn to tsitsav tesTs & oF 

qoqqus as begedea od yam ysdt 10 ,OLL 28d ak 8 ment nfo 


2 takes anys qd beterooeboed t0o,amtot sveonoo [snottienett 
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66 
projecting courseon which is laid a covering slab (Fig. 110); 
in case of covering wider spans or a greater height of ceiling 
several such courses become necessary, projecting more in the 
first and less in the second case. The corbels may be formed 
in a great varietr: of ways, either by partly or entirely bevel- 
ing them at in Fig. 110, or they may be shaped as supporting 
parts with convex profile forms occupying more space, with 
transitional concave forms,or becdecorated by cymatiums and 
rounds (Fig. 111). The architecture of different nations empl- 
oyed in these corpelled ceilings, sometimes simple beveled cor- 
bels, sometimes one or the other profile form, or sometimes a 
combéantion of members. According to the purpose and the prab- 
lem, one may also employ these simple decorative expedients at 
this time, provided that all the forms are generally acceptable, 
and ase such as result from the problem itself, none merely b 
belonging to any special style. It. is senseless to refuse to 
use them merely because any architectural style first employed 
or extensively used them. 

Corpels (Fig. 112) as separate bearers, employed as modilli- 
ons in classic arwhitecture, or in the middle ages as supports 
for the most varied purposes, are nothing else than such a mode 
of constructing ceilings #n another form; for if the ceiling 
itself only slightly preponderates in womparison with its mode 
of support, or if it assumes any form, the principel remains 
the same. 

From the need of reducing the height of the stone beam ceil- 
ing consthucted by corbelling, the classic coffered ceiling t 
takes its rise. The architrave is the principal support of the 
ceiling and extends along the walls and above the columns, us- 
ually composed of twoi'deep beams set side by side, one outer 
beam passing the other at the angle, which abuts against it, 
ahile the two inner beams are mitred together (Fig. 113). The 
stone beams form a great paneling showing large openings on i 
‘its plan, and these may be covered by any methods previously 
mentioned. The classic coffered ceiling (Fig. 114) divides the 
se large openings into smaller ones by a series of beams A A, 
and into a second series of still smaller panels by a second 
series B B of still smaller beams, they covering the spaces 
by a number of stone slabs, excavated in the €orm of coffers 


a 


, Ss) | 

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fo Buidton :t1oqque Jf Tr. soneterze atk tot nottsortiteo: yne 
eOeqeisint on silt 

meqe jon asob Jf medw ,yrseasoenny svatéidots edt saa{oeh oT 


67 
to lessen their weight. The beams A and B together have a cer- 
tain depth that corresponds to that of the height of the geis- 
on or projecting part of the cornice (Figs. 114, 115), and it 
is so arranged that this is supported by B and also rests on 
the architrave, either as in the Doric style by a series of 
low pillars, the so-called triglyphs whose intervals are fill- 
ed ty the stone slabs of the metopes, or in the Ionic and for- 
inthian orders on the stone beam of the frieze. In the Ionic | 
style the intervals between the beams are sometimes materially 
reduced by corbelling out the beams A and B, a third series of 
beams C sometimes being inserted, upon which are then laid the 
coffers. 

So far as our knowledge of ancient architecture extends, we 
cannot assert that the ceiling of stone slabs was developed in 
its full extent. There are still possible solutions of the ipr- 
oblem not employed ir the classic styles, or at least no exam- 
ples of them have remained to us. It is first to be consider- 
ed that larger interspaces between the stone beams may be cov- 
ered by stone slabs laid against each other instead of coffers 
(Fig. 117); The slight thrust exerted by such panels may be e 
entirely neutralized by anchors of metal. Further the princip- 
le of corbelling may be employed in a more extended way than | 
‘in the classic styles, and finally it is not necessary to make 
the coffers themselves square, but they might as well be hex- 
agonal or octagonal, when stones of suitable form are placed 
to support them (Fig. 118). 

If the principle be consistently executed, that the construc- 
tion should supply the leading ideas for the architectural tr- 
eatment, one may then use the classic beam construction at the 
present time with perfect impunity, the Tonic frieze as well 
as the Doric triglyphs and metopes; but for the same reason, 
one should not regard the triglyphs as being purely ornament- 
al expedients like the Roman and Renaissance masters, and ret- 
ain them when the frieze is composed of ‘continuous blocks. The 
triglyphs are and regain supports, although perhaps originally 
used-in another sense, the metopes are panels, and neither has 
any justification for its existence if it support: nothing or 
fills no interspace. | | 

To declare the architrave unnecessary, when it does not span 


t © efesr tod eaislfliqg 10 eneuloo to enctssinnylootesnt edt 
i adt Bae efatocise> edt to teow sdtl ellen evoenit 
| {noo Aotan ,otatatn e esel on af ante otnotoeT salat r0t 
pot et {fan odd tect seb esosnoiw1s edt tort hssso1g yl 
oqgue & ton tod .isdmem Satsofons sosqe s ee yletem babtets+ 
8 )@enm dt ,troqqee 8 es etoe8 {fan edd vech -oels eno) anus 
) hedwe neve ,yracRem oc? .isiliq bebnedxs to oatd # ee bebrsd 
: trogque of sers0o antfevel & esiivpss ,sostisq seor 
gL yrev ai svetsidowe sft boa «ti evoda sonemnoo Jedd 
ge0b Jivnedy sets00 anifevel 8 fone Be 3nitos es debisy 
Bedsiw edqylzirt ved bivoy eidt sonte tod .eantasqo: nege 
Sfodw .svertidors antanage ssat ens madd ytsttqord! 19 
de tottal edt ,slditeaoq es hebsaol yltdntt ee ed bipode 
# gntoubes to sl{ytonisg edd atin sonsbicoos at betoutteces 
f 7) Sno te totete wetiqel to s{qret ent ai en ,étkeor 
moo to s{qionizg ott beyolqms eelyte oreasio ent teat 
| at egai{tes to amtot redot edt Yo notton1 endo sade nt 
“Yo evitos edT seesaly ta dmot oft ,efqmexe Intidnesd & yo 
envetie fori a otidtdxe (Sf ,OSI .ebrT) batiteo ards 
pe esi1sttoo has eneod snove to amiot Sneratiib 
| a to snsmtasrt oktedtes ead znimisomoo sttupnt wom sw tI 
ator dt fue qyns mietta yfeorsoe [fade aw ,enottourtenso seeds 
* pap ‘yd bedqeoon bas asivte otaeel ett yd bedosst tadt meds 19 
‘reer ‘Bysris o18 anveed oft tact basi eno eft nO ;soneeetened edt 
» © d@iw etrcager edd dosnnoo ysdt seat asdée sdd no. anstesd 
raaeate toetib tisdt sassiont of Ji few edt din bes tanto dose 
sete ‘enol thedT .tsbin tieds Hssoxe bluote dtqged 1tety , dd 
— shtariat bas antetteg brad yd betnemento yletetrgorigs ere 260 
'Qnksiogqeue jmotsoennco anst7x9 $sadt asqor beterut. to eno 
bey, | mi es ackbe 1sqgo tiedt? 10% sf{dative ets) etedaen. tet 
08h )faeeq dae enisdiaqg tesl ys bsteatoosb ois doidw ,bodvem ose 
ni “tof yntbro208 eslttow tnewsttib svad [fiw emntoluom arent 
+ ansrdaonle ddpif ont ,yateintl to shom edt baa eletistean wsest 
= @ge01dt .egntires to seso nt Agsansd mer? gatnoo vfsasa 
‘ “oo ioe en sit sess at soolt sit mott enokioelisy es bas 


ie % v -eeefs Yo shen 
‘onan to paws edt _gatareoaeo enoksoniset gaiwollot ont 


es ebetsbienoco 49 of sae 
TT sisi sinks ein siznte 8 ano? maed bam 2athlwor sas tI 


7 edd me sonel afO014; Manos edd mort yews doo sd yliever teow 


* 


68 
the intercolumniations of columns or pillars but rests on con- 
tinuous walls, like most of the Cothicists and the Rigorists | 
for false Tectonic aims is no less a mistake, which could on- 
ly proceed from the erroneous idea, that the wall is to be 
regarded merely as a space enclosing member, but not a suppor- 
ting one also. Wheu the wall acts as a support, it must be re- 
garded as a kind of extended pillar. The masonry, even when 
most perfect, requires a leveling course to support the parts 
that commence above its and the architrave is very ‘justly re- 
garded as acting as such a leveling course when it does ‘not 
Span openings. But since this would have triglyphs with great- 
er propriety than the free spanning architrave, ahose middle 
should be as lightly loaded as possible, the latter should be 
constructed in accordance with the principle of reducing the 
weight, as in the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome (Fig. 119). 

That the classic styles employed the principle of corbelling 
in the construction of the richer forms of ceilings is proved 
by a beautiful example, the tomb at Mylassa. The motive of 
this ceiling (Figs. 120, 121) exhibits a rich alternation of 
different forms of stone beams and coffers. 

If we now inquire concerning the esthetic treatment of all 
these constructions, we shall scarcely attain any result oth- 
er than that reached by the classic styles and accepted by 
the Renaissance; On the one band that the beams are always 
bearers, on the other that they connect the supports with 
each other and with the wall. To increase their direct streng- 
th, their depth should exceed their width. Their lower surfa- 
ces are appropriately ornamented by pand patterns and imitati- 
ons of twisted ropes that express connection; supporting ‘meul- 
ded members are suitable for their upper edges as in the iclas- 
sic method, which are decorated by leaf patterns and pearl beads. 

Their mouldinms will have different profiles according to t 
their materials and the mode of lighting, the light almost en- 
tirely coming from beneath in case of ceilings, through windows 
and as reflections from the floor in case the ‘coffers are not 
made of glass. 

The following distinctions concerning the forms of ‘ceilings 
are to be considered. 

If the moulding and beam form a single piece, much material 
must usually be cut away from the rough block. Hence in the 


le 


23 

8" beng attt ,e{soe saie! yiev 8 no agaritso to nottoutsence 
1s eased oat nt as0etq otetsqse es egnth{non sad susunt of old 

(ot ‘ek gntiledzoo to sigtonitg edt YT a{SSP 2.27) a de 
| 7 gnrbiuor sdt tal ofpode ew ,e{dieexog ae foun sa best 
spaontive [eortrsvredt gnktanrbtotne , (SSL .2i%) ¢ ts es ode 
sy od tfsett [ftw ofttorg edd .bereqorg bee sit of Jntbr0008 
ios edd 10 ,mzot xsvn0o otteytens sit Qnteooto 1sdtie.,beis 
sanottoutsanoo wssdRif Yo seeo nt mot Moitiens1d eveogoo 
if 10 .redteRz0t betodons ylieqo1g [fs ote ameod: enose- ene 
Wie sversidows edd nedw ,yinoesm dedsol ofat slind ete abue 
qt {fame at nage edt medw bse ,bedsol yitvees oot ed Jon 
fe So motsoeto1q 3norts & .beeu eis smote Bnoiwde To aevertsoote 
eft blnos-o¢ teed nedt at ti poldtaetnieq ek saniiledi0o edd 
_ “Yorasiiaes tied sonte ,amsed delfedtoo sid to soetise stidae 
‘tsi as esost sisds soit Yosd asdtist Sevomet ness ote ys svEetg 
Yo motsoeto1g Odt .d tnemagnaris att dtin elidw .(ES2 232%) & 
of dt 103 sldtseoy tr eoten meed adit to dt#7 Ynt2nedrevo ead 
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| bsl{sdioo od yam ylenebive Ff .bno hose fe JIOgqoe HIT 
_ 98) steiqnoo fotdw .d amead stetbenietat edt tod yyidarebisaos 
TS oso0 (elstil stud) tno beflsd109 od resistive nedd tegmn ,AroWsReT? 
ensen yi 6 * amaed edt to ebne sad yd baduogque eo Jaum yond 
-» ‘98edt to sostice t9n0l [stnosivod efdT .etnto, bentfons te 
* (hohe) eebnad ottl enietiag yd betaao0eb od ols yao ansed 

B emasd eds to eslane sat ,egnif{ies ased snovs Isvesibsm al 
Yleonsoe .(€SI .3t%) abnor bne sever ys Sebfwom yllaisa9g 874 
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: ost bevome: si Aton edt todtist edt .bebiove sd birode anit 
=treiors; encoed emtot saent tod ,eedoisio Yo noitontsenos edd 
—A).Ba0qIHy tsdd eedoso1gys A10nK sat dotan no Ofser Sdt nt old 
[fe yrettee {Lin dotdn bas aw yd heteesd sant edit sonsseionse 
a0) stom fosorgqs ylrsqory yrev ye , salt 190 to ednomet taper 
“edd neve 10 .. yonebaes elyte rsdto. edt 10 eno of yleeolo sesl 
Cy ~aol foodtin .ebe0n ati ot Antbioo08 enoitan agteiot to eal qse 
# s{ytonttq s of asredbs ti ¢e gnol om yting Lenietai ett. ges 
 gedd sd teu ofqtoning eidt tod ;efdsotlyges vilszene3 ai sede 
begoleveb ei sasmtasit mot edt tent tod ,betetiog ek Qatiion 
betoennoo ayawie sie 3atdt stdt tin Soe ,tfeesi garasd ott wort 


i 


69 

construction of ceilings on a very large scale, it is prefera- 
ble to insert the mouldings as separate pieces in the beams as 

at a (Fig. 122). If the principle of corbelling is to be util- 
ized as much as possible, we should let the moulding predomin- 
ate as at b (Fig. 122), Subordinating: thecvertical surfaces; 
according to the end propesed, the profile will itself be va- 
ried, either choosing the energetic convex form, or the softer 
concave transition form in case of lighter constructions. If 
the stone beams are all properly anchored together, or their 
ends are built into loaded masonry, when the architrave should 
not be too heavily loaded, and when the span is small and deep 
architraves of strong stone are used, a strong projection of 
the corbellings is permissible; it is then best to-monld the 
entire surface of the corbelled beams, since their centres of 
gravity are then removed farther back from their faces as at 

a (Fig. 123), while with the arrangement b, the projection of 
the overhanging part of the beam makes it possible for it to 
tip over. If the beam a (Fig. 124) is so long that it has 4 
firm support at each end, it evidently may be ‘corbelled out 
considerably; but the intermediate beams b, which complete the 
framework, must then either be corbelled out jput little, or 
they must be supported by the ends of the beams a a by means 
of inclined joints. This horizontal lower surface of these 
beams may also be decorated by patterns like bands. 

In mediaeval stone beam ceilings, the angles of the beams a 
are generally moulded by coves and rounds (Fig. 125). Scarcely 
can anything be ur¥ed against this practice, yet one should ad- 
here to this rule, that all approximations toward mediaeval 
forms should be avoided, the further the work is removed from 
the construction of churches, but these forms become permissi- 
ble in the ratio on which the work approaches that purpose. A: 
Renaissance like that desired by us and which will satisfy all 
requirements of our time, may very properly approach more or 
less closely to one or the other style tendency , or even the 
styles of foreign nations according to its needs, without los- 
ing its internal unity so long as it adheres to a principle t 
that is generally applicable; but this principle must be that 
nothing is imitated, but that the form treatment is developed 
from the thing itself, and with this thing are always connected 


i . Sa a — —_— oo 


oY 
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+) Ifete ew to2 .enoktibnoo {sool odt baw strl to etnomertopss 
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e ition ere aneod emote edt Yo esostase sbia L[sottrey oT)! 
sg% belfao-oe 2 yd betnemanto od tdztm yest sey ,hetetossh 
hem e°ys 10 ,taemento-basd nsiost neon [few ant 
) -atnomen 
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a8 eefyte tozgslo ent nt betss1t sto» bas ,neentdgti astae73 
anes ne9e2 ean yie yriste sdt tt ae tant ,dastsgenerd te 
eeprernenese nebfos yd betsio0osh stoteisds sex ysdt Sra ,msdt 
«gin etete edt efab 19tel & tA .bat to sald betolos bnvo7y 
a Se et9ifa1 ai aetteson of baknedo 
~[reo: enote to tnemfasit sdét tot atnerhsqxe [sinsmanito sant 
ems egnifies ‘snote madw nteza beyofqus sd of misfo 8 svad azar 
ox abs fen ae otteatistoaisdo bone yniessiq dtod Bnisd yd , been 
wes snottibers yd Setaitosanco svitom mict elisienev 
Shietein feqevse yd aeosgetein’ add saofo of beakes® ai ti YL>. 
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e009) & yd benno Bnisd slodw sd? ,abaed Issey 10 edanos yd 
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ni tee nm s(SSt .gtT) t9wolt bebmeqeve & qd batatoseb bine 
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to besoqmoo teas et 3nti[isq ased asboow to arop taolynte sa} « 
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8 ybsbdeol sd yen tk to no 4ndilsn tot od ysem toolt aime ,(S8l 
08 beosly bne ynotda oe ed tem emsod sdt snso jess eas ne bre 
ek maqe eat tt .beol sd? t1roggua aso ysdt tadd ,rSdten07 rzB8:N 
. | yantbned anodttn baol sdt troqggue8 ot amesd end 10% t6923 ood 
Isusyee yi 1o ,2e1sn980 fedt ts atebtiy yd bedtogque sts yedd 
ed nist oi yen arsbtt® seed? . (OSL 232%) eaoneteath sfdasine as 
mk mwode se eteog [soitisv yi das emesd Doesnt yd badroqgse 
ets emeo4 bonagit to emrot smersttih [eveveer siedw ,OS!l .gLF 
to nottonttence eat nz beyolqus .etu3it elagnte 8 at bedoslios 
fElsagiT nl sysiniotv edi base nogyfdkT at agnii£eo [evesiben 
Yo asbon aslimte to aslgnexe asdtist awoda eas €€!L bone SEL 


70 

the purpose and the material, the construction, the external 
requirements of life and the local conditions. But we shall 
return to our theory of form after these general consideratiens. 
~ Zhe vertical side surfaces of the stone beams are not usually 
decorated; yet they might be ornamented by 4 so-called fret, 

the well known Grecian band ornament, or by a band of palm or- 
naments. 

The coffers themselves are stone slabs hollowed for sake of 
greater lightness, and were treated in the classci styles as 
if transparent, just as if the starry sky was seen through 
them, ard they were therefore decorated by golden stars on a 
ground colored blue or red. At a later date the stars were 
‘changed to rosettes in relief. 

These ornamental expedients for the treatment of stone ceil- 
ings have a claim to be employed again when stone ceilings are 
used, by being both pleasing and characteristic as well as a 
venerable form motive consecrated by tradition. : 

If it is Besired to close the *nterspaces by several slabs 
joined together, rather than by coffers (Fig. 126), they should 
be made lighter by being hollowed, the joints bein: concealed 
by rounds or pearl beads, the whole being crowned by a decora- 
ted keystone. The coffer might also be wrought from a thick 
block instead of a thin slab, and be lightened by being hollow- 
ed and by removal of the superfluous stone on its exterior, a | 
and decorated by a suspended flower (Fig. 127). 

2. The ceiling of Wooden Beams. 

The simplest form of wooden beam ceiling is that composed of 
a series of beams on which is laid a covering of boards (Fig. 
128), this floor may be for walking on or it may be loaded, a 
and in the last case the beams must be so strong and placed so 
near together, that they can support the load. If the span is 
too great for the beams to support the load without bending, 
they are supported by girders at their centres, or by several 
at suitable distances (Fig. 129). These girders may in turn be 
supported by trussed beams and by vertical posts as shown in 
Fig. 130, where several different forms of trussed bédms are 
collected in a single figure, employed in the construction of 
mediaeval ceilings in Tibingen and its vicinity. In Figs.131, 
132 and 133 are shown further examples of similar modes of 


[oS PRE pe 


| ry 

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BET) eased statbemistat avnd ot ee Satouttenoo of sd yen azn 
| Yo bsetent baldert to beldvob ed yew eeeed niam odd das, (ate 
a ‘aeasi0t ~bsol sit ttoqque of es of ,e1sbat3 yd Sedaogqua Qniss 
 sagerosa: said (fteaned mort eidteiv 9d gon yeu t00Lt bisod eat 


Bad prio fs eabtaod to elansq etatsqse yt bellit antsd eso 
ii kehanics sedt Tsansgonzse oat mort syiteh of yess won er Jf 
uy enottatoosh sat asil(qque dots 


e8it ,et10qque stiedt dns emasd 944 rsbianoo of even Jaret sf 
=n09 tredt to desqa nedt [fede ow ;eo0atine sbhie das mottos vr 
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_ ,efeneq ni~bevooiz ent bne ,2gntbloom tebi0d dns edstot areds 

eid moi? bebnogace sts tod betrogqer ton o1e egatfres end tT] 
=—sg0td od¢ ,abor One aisdmem nofensqsue edt ,moisouttesoo Toor 
| end mor? .benotinem ed [Is biwode .mort yd easso sit to gat: 
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- edt bane tioqque edt meewted agatxe [avietnt nf tadd o@ .Jeaz 
yi to biaed [sottisy @ dtitw bel{it sd yem eras ,roolt brsod 


71 

Supporting beams by cap pieces from the town halls of Freiberg, 
Meissen, and the Gernanic yjuseum at Nuremburg. The bead ceili- 
ngs may be so constructed as to have intermediate beams (Fig.. 
£34),and the main beams may be doubled or trebled instead of 
being supported by girders, so as to support the load, further 
the board floor may not be visible from beneath, the interspa- 
ces being filled by separate panels of boards. 

It is now easy to derive from the structural idea the motive 
ahich supplies the decoration. | 

We first have to consider the beams and their supports, the- 
ir bottom and side surfeces; we shall then speak of their :con- 
nections with girders, caps, trussed bemjs, the entermediate 
beams, doubled and trebled beams, lastly of the board panels, 
their joints and border mouldings, and the grooved-in panels. 

If the ceilings are not supported but are suspended from the 
soof construction, the suspension members and rods, the trugss- 
“ing of the beams by iron, should all be mentioned. From the 
motive of the suspended ceiling may be derived peculiar forms, 
like those favorites during the middle ages and taking the form 
of vaults, although constructed of timbers. In all wooden str- 
uctures the supports of the ends of beams are of great import- 
ance, for if the ends of the beams decay, the ceiling falls. . 

These end supports of the beams vary according to the purp- 
ose of the timber work and its arrangement; either the ends of 
the beams form wood corbellings in wooden and half-timber walls, 
which support the upper stories (Fig. 135 a), or their ends 
are flush with the external surface (Fig. 135 b), or they rest 
on a wall plate or girt like the beams of a wooden roof (Fig. 
135 c), their ends are built into the wall (Fig. 135 d), or t 
tenoned into a wall beam according to a French method (Fig. 1 
135 e), or laid on a bric corbelled cornice (Fig. 135 f), or 
a wall plate is inserted between the beams and the cornice (Pig. 
135 ¢), or corbels are used instead of a cornice (Fig. 135 h); 
with posts placed between the corbels and wall plate in many 
cases with or without brackets, or finally the #all plate rests 
on a projection of the wall. 

In all cases where the end support of the beam forms an off- 
set, 80 that in interval exists between the support and the 
board floor, this may be filled with a vertical board or by 


st 

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basod edt bas ti neented adnio, est fns ,anottetotisy yd bets 
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ed edé to anaqe sdt mseael of et slatonisg ttedt ;.080 
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) y@eloenos Ofaesio. sit! beqeds o1s eisd109 e4T .% amasd oid 
ior 8dt-.esrctqicoe ete3it 10 absaod .ebisida vd betsioosb sxe 


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ese bas atedmts bedcors mott tao yl{srenss sis ature 


Die iekbeicn eis emeod bas etovtn edt .yffeatt caver euotiay ay 


oldedtos ot sheod hevieo dtin aniq svireeam -seiwieddo Ssdarodeh 
 -8§ntiteo fous to sonstasgqs antnestq ant sessions enoftacal 
NED .QtT mi nevi at qgso beviso yl(ntituesd « to elymexe, nd 


SEP ee eirsvel mf ganttted tes9 neavedgwe? wor? 
| +S ddiwebel{rt ed yen 2 bane 6 amsed sit noswied elsvietat solr. 


Fi, aR | eabisod dfoome 10 beviad.) beterct194 
 betetooeb ylotsitqorqgs eve amesd aff to asosttwe r8Ko0l, eT 
 aspetaoe ohie edt bne ,gaftntag to |nivieo to anistteg daed ogi 
nose mort hewot10d ..o%9 .mdinemaento nisq to ahmed .atert yo 
M -yne eds blvom of at show sldsting trom ent te .egnt{re0 weed 
as aznibluom seeds sont .emeed oct Yo ssostuve bane esl 


ow 


ented 10 dtynel stitas sit Ooeixe isitie yert easly a yd beow 
e@dnemento Seve [etoeqa tante3s efas bos elbbin edt te sdent 
Qatiteo meed beviss # nk mnode sk baiX efit Yo olgeaxs snit # 
na hay | : o(8EL .Bt7) Mots mi-aetr wol to 
yemasd beezot 107 .emesd edt sitl betset? od of ota srabar> 
got edt ,meynidBT dnwote brs mt sort neviy o7e aelgmaxs wok 


@ ttel sd 10 satwdigael seqrtta-yi Bbetaroseb .dbebivom 


gd edt yd mest [few & ,t 90a7d @ yo bstiogqea at o: 980 


“anied es ,eyew berisv Jeon edt ni dextistoatsio sd yaw 


te) oe 


72 
one inclined forward (Fig. 135 i); if this board may be decor- 
ated by perforations, and the joints between it and the board 
floor be conceaded by moulded strips. The wall plates may be 
moulded, decorated by stripes lengthwise or be left smooth. 

The most pleasing forms of end supports are derived from the 
motives f, ¢ and h when the cornices of stone or brick are of 
rich forms or by the development of the corbels. Very rich me- 
thods of constructing these end supports were devised in the 
middle ages and during the Renaissance in numerous massive 
wooden ceilings of Dutch churches, town halls and castle halls, 
etc.e; their principle is to lessen the spans of the beams by 
beans of long caps. A corbel a (Fig. 136) supports a strut b 
on which rest two caps ¢ and d, which support the beam e. The 
cap c is supported by a brace i, a wall beam by the braces h,, 
and this wall beam serves to receive the board floor laid on 
the beams f. The corbels are shaped like classic consoles, or 
are decorated by shields, heads or figure sculptures, the caps 
may be characterized in the most varied ways, as being both 
free ending and supporting members, for wbich the volute curve 
derived from the Ionic capital supplies a suitable motive, the 
struts are generally cut from crooked timbers and are curved 
in various ways; finally, the struts and beams are moulded or 
decorated otherwise. massive pins with carved heads in suitable 
locations increase the pleasing appearance of such ceilings. 

An example of a beautifully carved cap is given in Fig. 137, 
from Burghausen near Cetting in Bavaria. 

The intervals between the beams e and f may be filled with 
perforated, carved or smooth boards. 

The lower surfaces of the beams are appropriately dacsenuae 
by band patterns of carving or painting, and the side surfaces 
by frets, bands of palm ornaments, etc., borrowed from stone 
beam ceilings. But the most suitable mode is to mould the ang- 
les and surfaces of the beams. Since these mouldings are prod- 
uced by a plane, they either extend the entire length or term- 
inate at the middle and ends against special carved ornaments. 
a fine example of this kind is shown in a curved beam ceiling 
of low rise in Zurich (Fig. 138). 

Girders are to be treated like the beams. For trussed beams, 
four examples are given from in and around Tibingen, the form 


aN aaa | 

age 88) .bebasmmooey yilesenss sd yeaa Bniage oftesl[o ne to 
Fe ) otnol sd% to mrot betele1 sft ni Dae wodgeoio bas sod eas 
edt of bnoyeer709 viist sottonet bas sissan seodn m1oi 6 ,fedi 
ei: etSb1E2 beasts std to 

8 ad yi benievoz 918° 9" amsed steibemsetai sdf to seed nt 
ten edt nadt bebdsol ylfitvesd eeol ere seodt a6 feds ,tagu0 
eantbeol eid? to 19f08 edo |sdt esergxs bloode yeas ame 
ito nism twsdtede .meed bebi[wom sd? to ssbft brvotg 
ma wsdtenosd banned eeoetq to elbaod e to tedt eswla ai 
B-stefftt ,esvoo .abagot ;masd edt to stgxeft eft ont 
: dott ni tedto dose dtiw stanistle ,atetmeno ee [law es 
ed efaiad 10 aiduob to exnthl(nog eft beonborg ots yew eidd ot 
 gtaiaqes edd to anotioes tisd adt to moitentdmoo sdt yd ema 
enn evig .ObL Off .ekitt .aveyel tnexsttsh sdt to ameod 
enolltd af{teas mort emsad to enottoee baa eantiies maad te 
mont ab Edt sutt sneeatel to olteso edd mort ots SAL IDL .2giF 
-giksfootiedt mort ddl 367 jnebaeid neon yrodnsteedog slsess 
iin nied tesf owt ont ,nobeotd taso sbfawetbfogyid ar isqedo 
‘ene’ .eftta sonseataned aad 

bisod sad of ylqas aseso arlinga tot nmevigeybeatls asfny sak 
fo ~bebsod Sas botsde1 10 bedotem od ysg Aino, sat. ,alecey 
-ebtsod eit to ezsdaiide mot etfuesr A tasisqqa om Jedd 
asiiinus ot banstast anstied yd Sbeievoo od ocle yas etasoy edt 
yestt yam breod Insoethe edt dedt oe ,yfne s3be sao ds-eb5 
lee Pie rd etoatiaos bra maaeee 

yea Sas sherbt ses yd beeofone ed bivedea eleneq bettsanicoa] 
Ya tendoose of ysee ai tI sbetstotieq) 10 bewis> ,nieig steal 93 
yem agniftes dove to tostt& sdt ,2afblty bas gnttnteq ferdraq 
y aniassiq © yifaseoen to sean at has ,benstagrsd ylisinesan 9d 
 stise woiley wiosts ,stirdw etoloo sdt yd bentetdo 9d nao tostie 
~~ Byntlieo nt tsdt horebience ed binode Jr Joe .ba7 ne cbal oases 
,20fod emes sat svad seu etadmem telinta ,amaed bebl[yom agre 
=mem edd fads bes ,zent{ sntt 10% bees sd yfno bloote blog saat 
eesvooTs bos ats{{rt worten yo oOetetaqes giqrede od Slyote aisd 
-aebom ese tedt ssoaqe ao Ssen sd yew stoloo end tent on ,.ode 
edt to sys edt mort et ant{teso edt t9dt¢aat saT .betdgri ylete 
| wtdgtad sdf ,berazil et woot edt ylaaorte gael edt baa rsvisede 
(M0 .toette [e1ems3 boog & sved of 28 o8 ,et0f09' sad sd tenn 19 
foo tagtid bare ys3 ni etooido to 3nttateg eat sbnootz mse edt 


' 


y 


73 
of an elastic spring may be generally recommended, as seen in 
the bow and crossbow and in the related form of the Ionic cap- 
ital, a form whose nature and function fully correspond to that 
of the trussed girder. 

In case of the intermediate beams we are governed by the th- 
ought, that as these are less heavily loaded than the main be- 
ams, they should express the character of this loading. The 
ground idea of the moulded beam, whether main or intermediate, 
is alwas that of a bundle of pieces bound together and resist- 
ing the flexure of the beam; rounds, coves, fillets and grooves 
as well as chamfers, alternate with each other in rich variety. 
In this way are produced the mouldings of double or triple be- 
amg by the combination of the half sections of the separate 
beams of the different layers. Figs. 139, 140, sive examples 
of beam ceilings and sections of beams from ‘castle Chillon. F 
Figs. 141, 142 are from the castle of Meissen; fig. 143 is from 
castle Schaefenburg near Dresden; Fig. 144 from the Nicolai ic 
chapel in Dippoldiswalde near Dresden, the two last being in 
the Renaissance style. 


The rules already given for similar ‘cases apply to the board 


panels, the joints may be matched or rebated and beaded, so t 
that no apparent crack resutts from shrinkage of the boards. 
the joints may also be covered by battens fastened to the boa- 
rds at one edge only, so that the adjacent board may freely 
expand and contract. : 

The inserted panels should be enclosed by mouldings and may 
be left plain, carved or perforated. It is easy to see that by 
partial painting and gilding, the €ffect of such ceilings may 
be materially heightened, and in case of necessity a pleasing 
effect can be obtained by the colors white, black, yellow ochre 
and Tiidian red. But it should be ‘considered that in ceilings 
with moulded beams, similar members must have the same ‘color, 
that gold should only be used for fine lines, and that the mem- 
bers should be sharply separated by narrow fillets and grooves, 
etc., so that the colors may be used on spaces that are moder- 
ately lighted. The farther the ceiling is from the eye of the 
abserver and the less strongly the room is lighted, the bright- 
er must be the colors, so as to have a good general effect. On 
the same grounds the painting of objects in gay and bright \col- 


ae -_—— —_ ——s 


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et to to1ye mp ae .soneaterbh [[sme 8 mort bowery ,.o88 
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au r: -horieg Insole 
: Moktonrtenco ont =o t{uest amtot evitetoosh tnetsttsc 
{ $ to nottosarstat o etatog edd stedx agniliso bsbaaqeue 
motenegaue sit bI .nottatebienco Intosqa etinpet exe 
oefq a18 atun dotde no abms netoe atin ebor mois om 
etd? .macd bane ton edt nested betysenr sd Jeum sed 
soaiqe2 ed ys 10 ,snemsat0 nowt doit s to mot sat sdat 
yd 10 ,19d¢o dose no beoslg [stem to adieth Isisvee 
peas i ekaelontess3 18 tettel ofT .etetfebhaedo sacl atnensaio 
rf ‘edt mort bebasqeus sd of sta aseiishasdo rede steitg 
, NO LJoOSeteI Nf 
bee ; od /yem anoitouisenoo bsntot dead? Sstate ybsetle sven si. 
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fo ,g#ed071s ea2019 boe edits atin etiusv Senior; to beeo 
mo 81t6 s9xeqge sit bas .abtzed to anfieves sdt bsoséq 
wi8dto floss fosets#ni adit odt doitn ts asesod neboow bevrias yo. 
nits Yo aznifiso neboow [ntevata yiev ,boalfoH Sas nuts fed xl 
ab elqmexe sot ,botieq soneaatsesed edt [itne bejosis satex bard 
‘edi tned abi205 to obsm ston egnitevoo sas (CdL .3i4) astrsk 
 anoktouttanos betineaev ofdtoD etal tsedort sat base ,animacte 
7 | re vitostieq nennem 8 at batsett tod ,betssint orse 
Lat, a fofifoutteneo neboow of gor 
| eahers fetnost10d ot betistansss siqioning Lssetousta eral 
gen dotdw .(a3f .327) egatf{teo betiusy [ennet of absol soeen 
Me fedtie e794 baa ,agnibiiad doted mi obeyolqae yitaenp set YiIev 
, “begegat sfq099 8 o¢ [aqden od ysm se tO .sbis0d Astin batevoo 
i edt nt agntitss Ssmatt-qine sift betes stew .aniblindatde me 
mm yldetioe ems atedmis edt [fe %4 boa ,edluav banto1y to nto 
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; Nee poole dovsdo ent to dignel sittne sat ALsn blyod ano dead oF 
' vi -aniftso edt to g1eqg 19n0f sot 
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etniog guidiete two of aiete1 won 


vie 


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74 
‘colors may .be censuredas in case of the furniture of churches, 
etc., viewed from a small distance, as an error of taste, that 
has become quite fashionable with many architects during a very 
recent period. 

Different decorative forms result f@om the ‘construction of 
suspended ‘ceilings where the points of intersection of the be- 
ams require special consideration. Id the suspension members 
are iron rods with screw ends on which nuts are placed, a was- 
her must be inserted between the nut and beam. This washer may 
take the form of a rich iron ornament, or may be replaced by 
several disks of metal placed on each other, or by suspended 
ornaments like chandeliers. The latter are particularly appro- 
priate when chandeliers are to be suspended from the points of 
‘intersection. 

We have already stated that turned constructions may be used 
to divide the ceiling into vault-like portions; the suspension 
rods then terminate in drops or knobs, the ceiling may be ‘com—- 
osed of groined vaults with ribs and cross arches, on whichis 
paaced the covering of boards, and the apexes are ornamented 
by carved wooden bosses at which the ribs intersect each other. 
In Belgium and Holland, very graceful wooden ceilings of this 
kind were erected until the Renaissance period, for example in 
Harlem (Fig. 145) the coverings were made of boards bent by 
steaming, and the richest late Gothic vaulted constructions 
were imitated, but treated in a manner perfectly correspond- 
‘ing to wooden construction. 

This structural principle transferred to horizontal roof tr- 
usses leads to tunnel vaulted ceilings (Fig. 146), which were 
very frequently employed in Dutch buildings, and were either 
covered with boards, or as may be natural to a people éngaged 
in shipbuilding, were treated like ship-framed ceilings in the 
form of groined vaults, and if all the timbers are suitably m 
moulded posts, braces, and free-ending posts are properly ‘car- 
ved, these ceilings are very pleasing. The horizontal beams 
that support the entire constructiou were decorated by paint- 
ing, and in churches were generally utilized to form a passage, 
so that one could walk the entire length of the church along 
the lower part of the ceiling. 

We have strayed into the domain of visible trusses and will 
non return to our starting point. 


a ee ee ———< 


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ges ek I -2elit yd tod abisod yi betevoo ton 918 asceje 
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ae eeter? ottedtes to sldagses et ,esidete tot heyols 
soi et omae edd -sse0qing tedto tot beea-sd oe! m 
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wih s ,enstted bebisom yt efmto, aedd antievoo nt 
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| “to anoftatiat se beonemnoo sonseniane edt yd beo 
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te oale ste fotdw ,erottoseistnr edt a5 deatexod be 
a en moit gnfinetxe amesd eat to emoa syed to adios yd 
= denteze gnitiods enesd ynintswer sdt ,xadto! ene 
fal madd ofni’ banogeds 
bextasin $d -yem dignelf tsetn to smeed maboon sonre 
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. ‘eI8AtO do8e OLE 
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| otat 10 jereMI00 SMt Bntnedsynotte ydeted? baa aslynaiat bolgne 


Wa 


75 

Beam ceilings should also be mentioned here, where the inter- 
spaces are not covered by boards but by tiles. I’ is easily s 
seen that this mode of constructing ceilings, hitherto only en- 
ployed for stables, is capable of esthetic development, and m 
may also be-used for other purposes: the same is true of ceil- 
ings composed of wooden beams set diagonally, between which 
are turned brick arches. Instead of tiles might be employed p 
slabs of stone, cement, slate, glass, etc., according to the 
purpose for which the ceiling is constracted. Board ceilings 
are wooden beam ceilings covered by boards on the underside. 
The expedients for their decoration consist of painting and 
in covering their joints by moulded battens, a division into 
a few large panels, each of which is enclosed by partly per- 
forated and partly carved boards, as in a very pleasing church 
ceiling at Zug in Switzerland. 

8. Paneled Ceilings. 

Many of the wooden beam ceilings just described might also 
be termed paneled ceilings; but true paneled ceilings introdu- 
ced by the Renaissance commenced as imitations of the classie 
coffered ceilings, but developed into forms quite different 
from those of beam ceilings. They are composed of intersect- 
ing beams, either having all the beams of large ceilings halv- 
ed togetheh ab the intersections, which are also strengthened 
by bolts or keys, some of the beams extending from one side to 
the other, the remaining beams abutting against these or being 
tenoned into them. 

Since wooden beams of great length may be obtained, the web 
system may be employed as a basis for coffered ceilings. In 
his Five Books of Architecture, Serlio gives a beautiful cof- 
fered ceiling produced by the intersection of lines maging 60° 
with each other. 

Larger coffered ceilings appear somewhat monotonous, the Re- 
naisgance masters sought to avoid this monotony ty replacing 
a group of coffers by a larger panel; these panels might be 
square, oblong or cross-shaped. 

New motives for ceilings are produced by dividing the large 
panels into smaller ones by means of smaller beams, further by 
chansing square into octagonal panels, by cutting off right 
angled triangles and thereby strengthening the corners, or into 


at 
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76 
cross-shaped panels by small beams placed at right angles, la- 
stly by producing the ends of the smaller beams beyond the in- 
tersections with the larger beams. Compare the motives shown 
in Fig. 147. 

A further improvement in this mode of constructing ceilings 
can be obtained by means of sfiall beams set dingonally (Fig. 
148), by tenoning the ends of small beams into the frames of 
separate panels b, and by the introduction of circular frames 
or of those cut to other curvatures. Further, these ceilings 
may be decorated by usang beams that do not intersect tut are 
merely tenoned together (Fig. 149). With these expedients we 
can obtain an inexhaustible variety of possible arrangements 
of ceilings, all derived from the simple @offered ceiling. 

Many of the constructions are not to be considered as being 
very strong; it it is desirable to employ such, their pleasing 
appearance making them desirable in spite of their lack of st- 
rength, a series of beams is laid above the ceiling, to abich 
it is fastened by bolts. This series of beams should be regard- 
ed as a web system, whose intersections can be arranged in va- 
rious ways. At these points the paneled ceiling is to be bolted 
to the beams, and they may be decorated in the most diverse w 
ways by knobs, rosettes, etc... The motives for these paneled 
ceilings with an upper layer of beams to which they are fast- 
ened, are finished by web, embroidery, mosaic, lattice, chain 
and net systems. All division of surfaces exclusively consist- 
‘ing of curved forms may thus be used for paneled ceilings. As 
‘in beam ceilings, we man use large and small beams in paneled 
ceilings also. 

The motives employed in the decoration of paneled ceilings 
are essentially similar to those used in paneling, stone and 
wooden beam ceilings. If what was said in the Chapter on that 
toptc is retalled, we can easily establish fixed principles 
for the decoration of paneled ceilings, but it must not be for- 
gotten that like all other forms of wooden ceilings, these mu- 
st possess a peculiar character corresponding to the material, 
and that ornamentation by wood carving, gilding and color are 
especially appropriate. 

It is self evident that lighter horizontal lattices may be 
bolte: to beam ceilings, whose interspaces may be filled with 


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‘asdto atin notioenaes ne nottocttenoe mo1k to bne aneod 
as tase gadd , yew Ietencg 6 at bise od ylano ered [few JT 
ttel 6dt tedt bane ,emtot efymite etinpest arsbarg nowt sdgu 
. # r0aa70% syteiagotg fesel sat dértw emtot Istoeqe asmveae 
“40% beyolame yletemixorqgs ote dégnstte wiotinw Yo awiot 
. ef erofoo [io addin anttnisg T2035 eUllantt ;nertourtsenoo 
$42 a0 (od atid ftiw tedt Boe ,deu1 mort nowt sad sosto1y oF ber 
Visiter ed yem noftocttanos soit to tJostts gnteselg 
mt exntblind aot Sseo yidearstesg oe egnifiso noxl 
os ? oidetixs to moutnin #2 stotsted? .eseoqiog ytantbhto 10t 
“8 at tnemenner14 atrine eat ti ,tnetotttse yllesan er in 
| {qrte ead ditin eseestont sostte unreselq sad jsno Znies 
i sence no1t mt ted¢teS .nottouttenoo eft to eesnrasio bre 
tre o1qg ai [fama sts sys ant yd aese esbotingms sod noi 
> sometesags [entedxe eft :barsveo 318 test amoor shin edd 
vibat sat to emtot sit no easel ebaeqed noitonttanos sour 
bas fortoennes to sbom edd no nett .atosmels Lerotoorte 
re -Themshneiie 
on to asy2 od¢ mort bevowet wet ood tom agniftso aoit al 
Pibbthon tnagete yi betmemento od bluoda emaed mot ect ,reviee 
9 no" w dud s:moxt teao Yo eher etnomanto betaiotieq yd to ear 
| eved neo isddexot betevin eetelg ballor to obem amasd mots 
it rot bertnpst yfetuloads tedd aedd tedvo mrot yas yloorsose 
e _ SBOgIL 
Bs | amas edt ,besinev exs amsed odd aeowssd asoegamssar sit tI 
be {rt Yi jetInsv ac tesqedd edt ak every e1s teadd ylqqe aslor 


oan 


ig 
i 


Ti 
boards, producing boarded or battened ceilings subject to the 
sane rules as lattices. Several very beautiful ceilings of the 
Italian Renaissance churches have turned this motive to good 
account. (See Celings from Verona in Semper’s Der Styl). 
3. Iron Ceilings. 

Iron ceilings are partly used on account of safety from fire, 
partly because by the aid of this material the widest rooms may 
be covered with maximum elonomy of material and expense. 

Besides iron, only stone and brick are employed for fireproof 
ceilings, wood being also used in those not fireproof. In gen- 
eral iron ceilings age constructed of iron beams or girders, 
Supported by heavy trusses for wider spans. What is to be said 
of the construction of girders will be given in treating of b 
beams and of iron sonstruction an connection with other things. 
It well here only be said in a general way, that cast and wro- 
ught iron girders require simple forms, and that the lattice 
assumes special forms with the least propriety; further that 
forms of uniform strength are approximately employed for iron 
construction; finally, that painting with oil colors is requi- 
red to protect the iron from rust, and that with this help the 
pleasing effect of iron construction may be materially enhanced. 

[ron ceilings are preferably used for buildings intended only 
for ordinary purposes, therefore a minimum of artistic treatn- 
ent is usually sufficient, if the entire arrangement is a ple- 
asing one; the pleasing effect increases with the simplicity 
and clearness of the construction. Further in iron construct- 
ion, the amgnitudes seen by the eye are small in proportion to 
the wide rooms that are covered; the external appearance of 
iron construction depends less on the forms of the individual 
structural elements, than on the mode of connection and their 
arrangement. 

In iron ceilings not too far removed from the eyes of the ob- 
server, the iron beams should be ornamented by elegant mouldi- 
ngs or by perforated ornaments made of cast iron; but wrought 
‘iron beams made of rolled plates riveted together can have 
scarcely any form other than that absolutely required for their 
purpose. - 

if the interspaces between the teams are vaulted, the same 
rules apply that are given in the Chapter on vaults; if filled 


oe a a ee 


sof ome ‘aleana: tisdt ,ebas0d seboor 10 eaotea to adala yd 
Sage I .agnifiso moboow 10 emote to seodt sitl badas 
710 gaidote yd betatooeb sd neo ti ssoqing aint tot 
aainits ebevofgme ed yem zainiste easly sors 10 
, .book bas norl to stood beaantd eldtaiV .b 
> 8 yd bedroqqua egailiso sta stoor beeauis sidierl 
gh eeredman befoennoo to medeys benterte yllautom bas 
o yitesl ,sboreit bas aeit [atnositon to [aiene3 ni tef 
oqque git YI .atnfot, bas sdt Rnidosnnoo amasdsit Ladcos 
8 gesmooed eldt ,yntiies aft svode dsoslyg ets etsdmea 
e esfgtonta3 edt bas ,yniliso beleney 10 betsttoo weed 
os [desk tags ers eunifiteo to amtot esodt no 19tged) edd af 
eile Este et etoot meboon beasort sldtatv to Anrieveo Toot 
Ty. ts we Yftoe1th yen eesdt bas ,e19tler yd tod amasd yd hs 
Pak | toot sdt assented heaogietar ad yea enifasq to ,to07 
rh wn ees ,tdaisite yllesen ste stetter edt j;eistis: L[eqroniag 
@ ef? .botieq oo001s9 edt to ze1tga ai as devine yleret 
_ sbeeentt heniet ef etadter to anoitanidmos to meteya ont 
iy -2toor beaanit mebooW .# 
Yat at aevitom ato? sft etoot seeit to ynitsvoo eds 107 
av  eeanifies to sasmtests ott tot mevty ybaetis essesbr odd 
@ .boow ,eotsle ,anelz ,eelid ,snote to leiseisn anirs 
They to asitss & of benstest ylisvan af ,.ote ,[stenm 
s0 agitate t9dt0 siil betetoseb 9d ylfsteney yam docds 
gem znirevoo edt tr ,ssoqteg bas sisden wfeds of aakbieo 
. poosqeesas mt efensq [fe eit ,fteensd eldiaitv enisamet 
pooos mo ,bavioo to Itdyrerte tented ~aIsttet Gnksroggue 
segse13 evad blvoda anthaed of sonsdeieet [fame ated? 
petssit 9d bluode dae ,emsed tedto [fs itl thin cedd 
ot bantmtss 9b ssigtonimg ed? ,etetto ytinntsoqgo asa’ .ansed 
ds -ito be eturte ,eborsit to amtot edt sntmieted emiot gnitcurl 
edt TI .(.psa to Gel og ,e20rnotost ssh) .ettag betosnanos 19 
des ogmoc sie enifiog sat anttroqqua anasd atau edt to esatter . 
ant DIODE ajntviso ys betetoveb ed yam yedt ,es0erg beviso to 
oe etiey evorisy at batebrenoo srodt edit .ssonstemuoi1to of 
-e0inotoetidowA bae eoknotosT a0 
* ,a%007 beeautd sidtetv nit ainerbeqxe svidei00sb yf[s100 eA 
: “Jexpsoorse edt neented esosqeistat ynir{ltt rot yolqas naw o% 
sBaivieo ols ,eontd [fe to afeneq bilos to betatotisy ,atsdaem 
“outs edt to etieq tnentmotg s{detioe no gntbirg bre anitnteg 


es 


“be 
it, 


78 | 
by slabs of stone or wooden boards, their panels are to be tr- 
eated like those of stone or wooden ceilings. If Slass be used 
for this purpose it can be decorated by etching or engraving , 
or true glass staining may be employed. 

4. Visible trussed Roofs of Iron and Wood. 

Visible trussed roofs are ceilings supported by a combined 
and mutually strained aystem of connected members. These cona- 
_ist in general of horizontal ties and tierods, lastly of hori- 
zontal tiebeams connecting the end joints. If the supporting 
members are placed above the ceiling, this becomes a suspended 
beam, coffered or paneled ceiling, and the principles stated 
in the Chapter on those forms of ceilings are applicable. The 
roof covering of visible trussed wooden roofs is not support- 
ed by beams but by rafters, and these may directly support the 
roof, or purlins may be interposed between the roof and the 
principal rafters; the rafters are usually straight, but are 
rarely curved as in spires of the Barocco period. The support- 
ing system of combinations of rafters is termed trusses. 

“%. Wooden trussed roofs. 

For the covering of these roofs the form motives result from 
the ideas already given for the treatment of ceilings. The coy- 
ering material of stone, tiles, glass, slates, wood, straw, m 
metal, etc., is usually fastened to a series of wooden battens, 
which may generally be decorated like other strips or bands ac- 
cording to their nature and purpose, if the covering material 
remains visible beneath, like all panels in interspaces. The 
Supporting rafters, whether straight or carved, on account of 
their small resistance to bending should have greater depth 
than width like all other beams, and should be treated like 
beams. When opportunity offers, the principles determined for 
limiting forms determine the forms of tierods, struts and oth- 
er connected parts. (See Tectonics, p. 195 et seq.). If the 
_ rafters or the main beams supporting the purlins are composed 
of curved pieces, they may be decorated by carvings according 
to circumstances, like those considered in various parts of 
our Tectonics and Architectonics. 

As purely decorative expedients in visible trussed roofs, 
ae man employ for filling interspaces between the structural 
members, perforated or solid panels of all kinds, also carving, 
painting and gilding on suitable prominent parts of the struc- 


7 UL ere pe “hee ' caer 


oo See 
me Ste Letasmento offlesem .s1utoutte 
froan 1 Sdt aysnls at noitouitenos 1sel> bas sf{ymia 4 
Piettacs to 1edtetn ,etooa beeeotd sldteiv ifs nk 3niad 
yeerotar tnststtib to aoktoeith edd ok anoidiensid sisids 
oe | nk esyruo notttsnsid ys bensitos sé yam ataaq Letasours: 
ihe iad baa Yoot sviessn ot badimil yferitns teonls ,aseeo 
Biot od ytseesosn nad ston ti ;zetelq belfor to enoisourse 
to mataya bIgi1 odt oF beeoggo .enorttnsvistnt dove 
aot fostts to yaienes bas noftourfeanoco sedw estutonutse 
0 3ninedtog yas wolls ton eafepst isdtien anones 
fal ecen Yo aisttse1 to sess at ylnO .ealtixs yrttaq yd 
{netto Si ak ,astgne sopifdo te zattosaistnir asge edie 
p bfod ew bael dokdw ,sevipo notsianett og%0el tisang of 
a boas 918 esintonutte done nedw :anottoutsenco toot douse 
9 to aelete obtw at 10 .anottata yanlte: to etoor yaem 
uferitns yadt ste ,.ote ,esenotio act ezniblisd .allad 
| em0%I to etoot beesort sldreiV .§ 
1q nk aslimte 2k atoor dessert novi to tnemteort ant 
fede of snthbicooe .boow To*batontsencod ezoat To Isnt oF 
a edt to tnemfseit ni soneasttib edd ,betata noed ybser 
Pond eit to sonsrettrh Lattnsees sdt no1t atiseer asisy 
a3 M0 Snshasyed aesesso7y fsotadoed sat bas .elsinatean to 
1et8e7) sat es [fow aa ,tdgten Yo bea [stietsam Yo yroncolt 
odd dttw bsieqmo9 ,moftose [supe Yo aisdmem nowt to atime 
F > tetdarl &-nofitourtenoo ao1k of aeviz ,f[eittetsen isdto yae 
fosq Sd? .enottonisanoo wiso to taht nedd Jvodycordt setos 
‘20m ,.e918g tasisttrb edt ynktoannoo Yo nebos ant to aarsine 
son gent 8 atouttedo ,aysd base etlod .ewetoe ,atevia yo bantot 
aoe qsent 6 ,etoot besgenis noir to mot offertias sdi ot taeaev 
40 be pqmoD ats sat of betotitass yloritns teoafs 3nted ysly 
Sait edd yd mot Yo esendory nt daoféar tovetadw t5¥ .nort tees 
) sit yo es [Ion es .nottourtenos nort od? Yo eesanidt bne ywist 
92 ft betsensynoo ed ned ,fsivetem edd antison to ysluorttibd 
-s 18H 10 betarot1sy no1t teso to sotalq to bis edt yd aatgsh 
Se6b fetnsmento yt ,fatom nidt at enottercosh yi .teifer at bed 
Yo watysd> edt nt barshbkeno® e118 dotdy ,sott togsomw ar aliat 
‘lal gntintsy yt ylteal bas ,AtOW a“dtimatoo! so aoinatos4T 
eat sgnibliy ys bas ,tant wort nottoeto1g & es beriupet atolos 
ent sesesog of bsrispet even ef notfouttenod nowt sonie ,sed9 


ote 


mt) ty 


iaease | 


ad i 


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4 = 


i 
‘Sh Sere 
a : 


be -* 
ft es is 
fh r; 


yey 
v hy [ 
7 


ne. 


7 


Ped toi | 
i) 


79 
structure, metallic ornaments, etc. 

A simple and clear construction is always the most important 
thing in all visible trussed roofs, whether of wood or of iron; 
abrupt transitions in the direction of different intersecting: 
structural parts may be softened by transition curves in rare 
cases, almost entirely limited to massive roof and pridge con- 
structions of rolled plates; it more than necessary to avoid 
such interventions, opposed to the rigid system of massive 
structures when construction and energy of effect for esthetic 
reasons neither require nor allow any softening or weakening 
by paltry trifles. Only in case of rafters of many truauses of 
wide span intersecting at oblique angles, is it often proper 
to insert large transition curves, which lend a bold sweep to 
such roof constructions; when such structures are used as in 
many roofs of railway stations, or in wide aisles of churches, 
halls, buildings for circuses, etc., are they entirely correct. 

8. Visible trussed roofs of Iron. 

The treatment of iron trussed roofs is similar in principle 
to that of those constractediof wood: according to what has al- 
ready been stated, the difference in treatment of the separate 
parts results from the essential difference of the two kinds 
of materials, and the technical processes pbependent on these. 
Economy of material and of weight, as well as the greater str- 
ength of iron members of equal section, compared with those of 
any other material, gives to iron construction a lighter char- 
acter throughout than that of other constructions. The peculi- 
arities of the modes of connecting the different parts, mostly 
joined by rivets, screws, bolts and keys, obstructs a free mo- 
venent in the artistic form of iron trussed roofs, a freer 
play being almost entirely restricted to the parts composed of 
cast iron. Yet whatever is lost in richness of form by the rig- 
idity and thinness of the iron construction, as well as by the 
difficulty of working the material, can be compensated in some 
degree by the aid of plates of cast iron perforated or decora- 
ted in relief, by decorations in thin metal, by ornamental de- 
tails in wrought iron, which are considered in the Chapter of 
Tectonics on Locksmith”s Work, and lastly by painting in ot1 
colors reguired as a protection from rust, and by gilding; fur- 
ther, since iron construction is never required to possess the 


cu a rh 
ot Sas 
A) Bait f 
) dud asiutouite snote to aetosted9, [sdnanunom tnsnimoberg 
eo sterebom & ,xietogmss exel 10 Siom Sseogtny & BSsvise 
soxe 1sq I[sitistan yretlixas os = .>sbsloxrs Jon ek 


e879 TsO 


‘ ee Te” ee: 
hh < : a am? 
fy 9 : : J el ' a" r i A ; 


| ae eatigsY .¢ 
) od ysn exbssestiont st beyolqms ylide1sie1q etivav aaT 
ef mottatioe*sb tetad s dotdw to ,asaaeto seadt ar bez 
oreesfo: (es ~:enoeset ynsa tot eekeq gatwolfot eas ai 
eatiuay eonseaiened .o ;etloav Ievesibom .¢ 
Js bencitasa ed of S18 atiosvy dnetoma 10 Ofeasto 3nowh 
bog bax adit fvodtiw atfusv bentow, ,comoh ,etiusv 
. Isvesiben to omsn edt -ativav Isnnud to noitosarsiar 
-esf9 90% bevitish ativav beddia to nortowxtenod IIs of barlgge 
aay to ot ntsbom [fs etinay sonseetsned mist of .emyot ote | 
— tokd ; eonsaetensh sit to antantged edd sonte 3nigeixe atl 
ie s ea{bbim edt to tor19q ofeselo oft t9a¢i9 OF mwoning S19% 
— fennos yd enoitosetetni tuottin to dtin etlusv hbsaiors-delor 
a | bedenncs ylao ,snif{tao beviso to atiuev Lsokaoo sat ,etivav 
a ‘neil A, ote ,esa6 o{bbim edt gaitod atioev besddta agin 
oe aolsvsb [spinoteid sd¢ Yo 19d¢ten ev)ed tart [fade of 
a vi ‘to estt iret {ue fetotoutta sdt Ile edracesh ton .tinav sad 
 gattsent @ ot yiseeeosr ed bloon doitde ,mofttouttenco hetiuav 
-rebI0 at sfoitouttenoco Rathlind 10 erodostidors Levesibes so 
ne mo yltdzite tod dovod aaotertsdt bas ,vedtem sdf baeteansbay of 
7 88 eno feistoutte edt no bas ,stototensd es I[sotsotera sat 
ke _ {stnemento ait to notdavirteb edd tot yrssesoen ed yam ee wet 
pki , | etinsy sft to tasmssort 
7 igh eetinueY supitnd fF 
ew Yo stad santts seed sved of awond [len ote etlusv asanod 
Big I 30 ,19dto dose at doute etog wolfod to 10 sitoasuoy snote 
ist mA _stetbemretnt yd betoennoo sedots leqionitag staisgee to yf 
» sedone to ebnid owt seont neented esosge stetbenteint ant ,ee 
Bey r odd to reostise edt essso taom sI .stotomes yd bellit anied 
| - wlotad tasfleoxe edt sonte ,gniteteasiq yd betson stem atlusv 
i. Ao uteneeoeans yisittas etinevy snota bedsoons sdsn Jnomeo bar 
#4 8) eeotusourde telisge ost ot asds vedrail 
“mm: -etlosV lenosl oo 
 sasigate odd ebia yi ebre beoely eta eedore to seinse a tI 
. Yo sts eatftoeenov edt ti ;hsonborg ek tloev fonnes sat to a10t 


—- 
' 


a 
: 


80 
‘predominant monumental character of stone structures but always 
serves a purpose more or less temporary, a moderate use of zinc 
is not excluded, being an auxiliary material par excellence of 
our era. 
5. Vaults. 

The vaults preferably employed in architecture may be arran- 
ged in three classes, of which a brief description is advisable 
in the following pages for many reasons:- a, classic vaults; 

b, mediaeval vaults; c, Renaissance vaults. 

Among classic or ancient vaults are to be mentioned tunnel 
vaults, domes, groined vaults without ribs and produced by the 
intersection of tunnel vaults. The name of mediaeval vault is 


applied to all construction of ribbed vaults derived from :clas- 


sic forms. We term Renaissance vaults all modern forms of van- 
lts existing since the beginning of the Renaissance era, which 
were unknown to either the classic perior or the middle ages, 
.welsh-groined vaults with or without intersections by. tannel 
vaults, the conical vaults of curved outline, only connected 
with ribbed vaults during the middle ages, etc. 

We shall treat here neither of the historical development of 
the vault, not describe all the structural peculiarities of 
vaulted construction, which would be necessary in a treatise 
on mediaeval architecture or building construction, in order 
to understand the matter, and therefore touch but slightly on 
the historical as heretofore, and on the structural only as 
far as may be necessary for the derivation of the ornamental 
treatment of the vault. 

a Antique Vaults. 
Roman vaults are well known to have been either built of 


stone voussoirs or of hollow pots stuck in each other, or last- 
ly of separate principal arches connected by intermediate arch 


es, the intermediate spaces between these two kinds of arches 
being filled by concrete. In most cases the surfaces of the v 
vaults were coated by plastering, since the excellent bricks 
and cement made uncoated stone vaults entirely unnecessary, or 
limited them to the smaller structures. 
4%. Tunnel Vaults. 

If a series of arches are placed side by side the simplest 

form of the tunnel vault is produced; if the voussoirs are of 


I8 

tame asnnt ites vo adiwollod to sviton sit ,snode 
07 ae td3tf ee sd teum sonore edt Jed¢ tnonetrspe1 eAd woTt 
| fod ert? etinev edt Yo teurdd L[etnostiod edt mesasl ot .ofd 
mottamtot edt of notteler yreve af ebsoqeeti0o teed gai 
fe ,bnmotk msince oid wort beater ylgnotte stteeor . 
| adit at tivev edt yd beowboma sr anifteo bersttao Yo 
t feo snote [atnostiod sat mort tnsbaegebar yisiitns , yew 

4 e0nc anted a1sttoo dtiw tinevy (sanot edt to esbi sat 
‘bas ed? .sonsvbs tsdtect s of abssl motsetebtanos sdgife & 
) mat eat a9 ystnentao1g oot tasqqs etiosesov sit Yo aint 
eds anttatoosb yi balasonoo. st# yent ;fiuev sdf to soat 
yeu tioev edt to9 .abesd Iaaeq qd 10 agnibloom meine 
ited dose .esdors bakticgque to betoutearos ylisteseet 
bie gathleiy wort esedowe sit Jnitnsveig ,tleetr to 
D9 10 esdots sit ext bebfyom ,enortoernoo Isenibatt2 
Qo emsteyse ont sit noovtod eeosgetestar sav gnifiirt neds 
sig. sta aud? .soalg ni bots t ,edele snote stetsqse J 
ab betife bas sonerseqqe lanietxe ni aslimte ,etinev dersttoo 
eotay gatsroraue edt seusoed .eartites bersttoo of slgionizg 
_ Yo adsfa aids ying bas ,esvlesmeds yd meds ye stelqnos a wit 
he ‘eysiaed .esosqgetessni edt anifirt yO? betivpe1 sae snove 
a ye  ekdt of antbioc0s Hefoutienos tivsy bersttoo LIutituesd seon 
and Yo Sait et ,wiot beqoleveb tadwemorn « ni dgeodd .slytonizg 
, tu Yo nemiosge sldon s ,sonex0lT nk of trig? .2 to ytetrose 
slog elqmexs anteselg yisv bnooea A .sonseetenss 
fotA’b sonnoeiss ettasnnottord to CSl 29. ,ood-el-tallory 
Leds bas sefore satevenatt edt to enottosntsdnt edT sem 
a - ypenoesyed beteioosh yd bsdetogatteid o1s etedmem Lantbut 

snecfov eitf [etteten stoe to bre ({fsma ete etforezov edd tI 
| gem yedd jetotud odif betege1g ylfsiottivw 918 to ,atod oF 
| Oresom 10 yrshbrowdme den ditw sonahtooos afr beqsde ed 
i y amo fesol0 feanottyeoxs nik snot nsed ylno asd bssbak dordw 
paoewse ,siguexs 10% .ssevoging sviteiooed 10% yIdareterg 
| ehgraa8S Yo eeluditasy Inteossy edt ni batd etdy to edfuav de 
)) Soetr0e tsbmc sit ,ysfo otdeelq 10% .nt{asd mi eqode entdoeNn 
‘Mi Bntesetg yd Sstnemanio 9d yam ettorevov [etnomento dove to 
| fo meinue ,boviso oved ysm ated dil eiatresen toe jebivos 
r mee ne «euro? besises 

loans to #{tud asdw .ad{usv onset betnioy bas teluottotmed 


iy 
tig 


aa), ‘| 
0p 


81 

stone, the motive of hollowing ou’ their inner surface results 
from the requirement that the stones must be as light as possi- 
bte, to lessen the horizontal thrust of the vault. This hollor- 
ing best corresponds in every relation to the formation of a 
rosette strongly raised from the sunken ground, and thus 4 sort 
of coffered ceiling is produced by the vault in the simplest 
way, entirely independent from the horizontal stone ceiling. 

The idea of the tunnel vault with coffers being once accepted, 
a slight consideration leads to a fusther advance, the end jo- 
ints of the voussoirs appear too prominentty on the inner sur- 
face of the vault; they are concealed by decorating them by s 
sunken mouldings or by pearl beads. But the vault may be more 
tastefully constructed of supporting arches, each being stable 
of itself, preventing the arches from yielding sidewise by lon- 
cgitudinal connections, moulded like the arches or otherwise, 
then filling the interspaces between the two systems of arches 
by separate stone slabs, fitted in place. Thus are produced 
coffered vaults, similar in external appearance and allied in 
principle to coffered ceilings, because the supporting parts 
form a complete system by themselves, and only thin slabs of 
stone are required for filling the interspaces. Perhaps the 
most beautiful coffered vault constructed according to this 
principle, though in a somewhat developed form, is that of the 
sacristy of S. Spirito in Florence, a noble specimen of early 
Renaissance. A second very pleasing example is represented by 
Viollet-le-Duc, p. 125 of Dictionnaire Raisonnee d’Architect- 
ure. The intersections of the transverse arches and the longi- 
tudinal members are distinguished by decorated keystones. 

If the voussoirs are small and of soft material like volcan- 
ic tufa, or are artificially prepared like bricks, they may 
be shaped in accordance with web embroidery or mosaic systems, 
which indeed has only been done in exceptional occasions, and 
preferably for decorative purposes. For example, Strack employ- 
ed vaults of this kind in the graceful vestibules of Bérsigés 
Machine Shops in Berlin. For plastic clay, the under surface 
of such ornamental voussoirs may be ornamented by pressing in 
moulds; soft materials like tufa may have carved, sunken or 
raised forms. 

Semicircular and pointed tunnel vaults, when built of brick, 


Gian ; se Lea — | } 7 Pyro on) 
: 7 tay ny 7) 
é eS Ny 6 he ee : ae? ip 
J j ‘ wee q ' 
saa a,'? : : i 
Ls . : j j 4 . 
ae 
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6 
%o beeogmo> ylortéas sie dotdt xotsd tad t4 
b hobe ak bik pete er edt to aixe edt of Lelf 
bers?" -etivev. wsiot 
! lan n'a pi tk anne ate atisey dowe 
> to ansem yi tnenimowg taom noktto7 t9eqqn aiedd gat 
abs05 to antetteq evitarooeb to ean edt yd cela .suot 
‘om sts .seit wol to edluev Lennus at dsyolqms oJ yea 
sae eit efanoysib steit ot Lelfarsqg hetiosvy ti [ut 
stat sdt yd beivem sedt et tivev edt to elbbin oat 
yd nottonttenoo edt to notte 1008h #& hms ,axoiad odd 
0 eagbe bane ofbbim edt of edetaqgomqge ei sioind berolos 
ea ! etiuay 
saedt pri fennet yd betevoo ete egoo1 Rano! TI 
2 “Qntdostomq eetevensss vd ayad ota bebivib ors eile 
,& mteddo of bas tivev edt to ynotonom ent Assad oF yldisg 
#dgtl Iinav oft elem ot yltreg bas .ystine ni yeitev tet 
dn ,bexsbienco od [lin asdo1s satevanstt sasdt to eto? 
¢ jf tefto atin nortoennen mt etforv L[eveaibes to Jasna 
ite to eeirise A yd. ativey fandat Qangtouttanos to shom A 
. fanibetionol yi asdtegzot betoennod asdoiws xdoimg 
o bodtem # ,steroneo atiw belltt meds anied ssosgaiedai 
{qme yltnoupett maed svad of mwond atfnev anrsipoate 
ebeol ovdwsi-telloryY yd bantelaxs ylint ,eaanod edt 
(pee ts ce «d «XI .etaf .toid)d{nav berettoo edt 
a ~@tipev beatois memo .4 
etd ad banahora metays nawofl edd to adiuev beator 
mgitom asfors Isnoxerd ont .atiosy fennut oft to nosd 
hi: + ed od sie .adia niow as esooastiwwe afedd dbnoyed 
vs 199 ond eonte ,enove to a18 atiosy od? TI .adicav [onant 
effe ere etivev fonnot [eupe islpottodmee to aoksosatssnt 
lot asiivosq avert teum alenogsth sat to eenota sieisgen edd 
pit tant oe vieteteqes bentateteb ed, Jenm anote doses dae 
sifosv [ennut odd eonke -bnod, boo; 8 mt etinn yam ad fusv, Lon 
he: idldesnobat edt to ensem yd sodote [snokerbh sasit no sean 
| ddgebh s eved rsdtis taom yedt ,uadd beol yliveed bas baod edd 
ohn & to betonrtenod ed 10 .tfuev 96d Yo tsdd nedd 1948074 
De taanocné ot ton 26 o8 ,tinav edt to tad? nedd [eireten 19 
2 asdore [snoxzetbh odt to Bntnedtznets3e eraT .baol sit asba0 
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y - 


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82 
if half brick thick are entirely composed of stretchers iparal- 
lel to the axis of the vault, while Dutch bond is used for th- 
itker vaults. 

Such vaults are most simply decorated by borders and by mak- 
ing their upper portion most prominent by means of colored br- 
icks, also by the use of decorative patterns of bonds, mhich 
may .be employed in tunnel vaults of low rise, are most taste- 
ful if vaulted parallel to their diagonals like Fig.-150 a, b. 
The middle of the vault is then marked by the intersections of 
the bricks, and a decoration of the construction by means of 
colored bricks is appropriate to the middle and edges of the 
vault. 

If long rooms are covered by tunnel vaults, these tunnel va- 
ults are divided into bays by transverse projecting arches, 
partly to break the monotony of the vault and to obtain a grea- 
ter variety in unity, and partly to make the vault lighter. The 
forms of these transverse arches will be considered, when we 
treat of mediaeval vaults in connection with other things. 

A mode of constructing tunnel vaults by a series of strong 
Brick arches connected together by longitudinal arches, the 
interspaces being then filled with concrete, a method of ‘con- 

structing vaults known to have been frequently employed ‘by 
the Romans, fully explained by Viollet-leeDuc leads again to 
the coffered vault.(Dict. Rais. IX, p. 485 et seq). 

8. Roman groined vaults. 

Groined vaults of the Roman system iproduced by the intersec- 
tion of two tunnel vaults, the diagonal arches not projecting 
beyond their surfaces as groin ribs, are to be treated like 
tunnel vaults. If the vaults are of stone, since the icurves of 
intersection of semicircular equal tunnel vaults are elleptical, 
the separate stones of the diagonals must have peculiar forms, 
and each stone must be determined separately, so that the tun- 
nel vaults may unite in a good bond. Since the tunnel vaults 
rest on these diagonal arches by means of the indentations of 
the bond and heavily load them, they must either have a depth 
greater than that of the vault, or be constructed of a strong- 
er material than that of the vault, so as not to be crushed 
under the load. This strengthening of the diagonal arches then 
expresses the greater importance of these over the surfaces of 


&8 
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n01y stse13 & ys 10 ,.notte100sb. to sbom [etosqe 6 yd ,10 
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a¢s of sedors fencysih sdt to esnote sad no tauwor 
‘Sseds gotdion bas Sntntmistsh to sonetmevnooni sat 
t of ebasl ylleinten stutot beteotiqnoo rredd dtivn sonote 
‘eid Rntdoutsenoo yd elanocrerh ent Ynireddanerts to sedi 
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foq. io batouttenoo semob y{feal ban .se1sige witeHp 10 Bamoh 
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weds eeoqmoo of ef semob anitouitenoo to show tesalgmte sat 
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a 
— 
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ver. 


83 
the walls themselves, either by a material of a different col- 
or, by a special mode of decoration, or by a greater prominence | 
of the lines of intersection of the vaults in the form of ribs, | 
wrought on the stones of the diagonal arches to strengthen them. 

The inconvenience of determining and working these diagonal 
stones with their complicated joints naturally leads to the i 
idea of strengthening the diagonals by constructing the diago- 
nal ribs as if standing independently, then letting the surfa- 
ces of the vaults intersect above the back of the ribs. 

The plan of a Roman tunnel vault with longitudinal and trans- 
verse arches but without special projecting ribs was formed as) 
at Fig. 151 a. that of a vault with diagonal ribs as at Fig. 
152, b, in case that care had previously been taken to provide 
a complete support for all the arches of the vault by arranging 
supporting piers in the plan. But in case not only the latter 
were required, but the cutting of the springing joints of the 
arches was to be simplified, as well as to obtain a perfectly 
free development of all the separate arches of the vault, the 
piers c (Fig. 152) required the addition of a projecting memb- 
er in the direction of the diagonals. | 

Thus the ribbed vault was developed from the construction of 
the Roman groined vault in accordance with the requirements of 
expediency; if the ribs are to be entirely omitted and the va- 
ult is so well built or its loading is relatively so small, + 
that they can be omitted, then a (Fig. 151) becomes the plan 
for the normal arrangement of groin vaults. The Renaissance 
is known to have entirely followed Roman architectureand gave 
absolute preference to the groin vault without ribs, over the 
mediaeval vault with ribs. 

y. The Roman dome. 

The dome is bounded by spherical surfaces; all sections thr-— 
ough a vertical axis and passing through the vertex are great é 
circles. From structural and decorative reasons, we are obliged 
to distinguish between domes simply taken, or hemispheres, half 
domes or quarter spheres, and lastly domes constructed on poly- . 
gonal, square or triangular plans, the so-called pendentive domes. 

The simplest mode of constructing domes is to compose them 
of horizontal rings of voussoirs, all their beds and end joints 
being directed toward the centre of the dome; each voussoir t 


‘ 


mr: eee ns whe ; 
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we $8 
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dt ,egnts Latnositod nt eseigoo edt ,xsqs bedoadeb ett 
a fe ,bnod dofad eat to emottoetrh Lanokerb bas Les 
emottetooeh etitne edt wot atniog kntacte 


5 


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nas } 


a + 


84 
therefore has two radial beds and two vertical end joints. The 
apex is cormed by a conical keystone, its under surface being 
concave spherical. If such a dome is built of cut stone it can 
be made a coffer dome by applying the principles already found 
to govern tunnel vaults of stone. If it be built of brick, for 
«hich purpose block bond entirely composed of headers is usual- 
lw: chosen for both structural and economical reasons, but orn- 
amental bonds are not to be exmluded from small domes, the dec- 
orative motives that may be produced by these bonds give abun- 
dant means for the ornamental treatment of the surface of the 
dome’ the general ground principles are conclusive in this case, 
as in all Tectonics, the border form at the base of the dome, 
its detached apex, the courses in horizontal rings, the verti- 
cal and diagonal directions of the brick bond, all furnish st- 
arting points for the entire decoration. 

The dome may also be regarded as being divided into sections 
by meridians, which diminish toward the vertex, and may be com 
posed of blocks of stone having thinned edges toward the apex’ 
this unpractical mode of construction should be regarded as 
merely fanciful, but was a great favnrite in the late Renaiss- 
ance of Holland, for niches and small domes. . 

A combination of the two modes of ‘construction is found “in 
the use of coffer domes, in the architecture of the Romans and 
the Renaissance, carried out on the greatest scale in the Pan- 
theon in Rome. A series of vertical arches diminish toward the 
vertex by offsets and form great circles of the dome, and are 
connected together by transverse arches, the interspaces betr- 
een the arches are filled by coffers. (Viollet-le-Duc. Dict. 
Rais. IX. pe 475 et seq). 

In’ the dome of the Pantheon a refinement was first employed, 
abich had a pernicious effect in later times, and led the Ren- 
aissance masters into error; the side surfaces of the hollowed 
coffers without exception radiated from a central point in the 
axis of the dome, so that instead of the coffers was introduced 
a perspective architecture, which only appeared in some degree 
correct frog the centre lying in the axis of the dome, but had 
a distorted effect from any other point of sight: at this cen- 
tre the side surfaces of the coffers entirely vanished from t 
the view of the observer. For our modern era to commend this 


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85 
theatrical effect as an ingenious idea as frequently haprens, 
can scarcely be termed otherw&se than an error of judgement 
of the esthetic faculty. The lower edges of the coffersonly 
should be inclined downward, so as to all becnme visible, but 
not the others. 

A peculiar formoof dome is obtained by constructing it of h 
horizontal rings and also with sections diminishing toward the 
vertex, if the vault is executed in herringbone bond as in the 
dome of Florence cathedral. This produces a pleasing arrangem- 
ent that may Be decorated in various ways by the use of colored 
bricks. Accordinsgito an: allied principle a dome may be concei- 
ved as being formed of separate spherical triangles or rhombus- 
es, their sides forming great circles andpartly spherical spir- 
als on the surface of the dome, which terminate at the vertex, 
a mode of construction never yet executed, though allied to 
many late Cothic star vaults. 

On the plan of any dome may be drawn a regular system of st- 
raight lines, that are to be regarded as being the horizontal 
projection of a system of circular arcs lying on the surface 
of the dome. The separate spaces of such a regularly divided 

domical surface may be filled with brick masonry, regularly 
arranged in a fixed direction. We find two separately existing 
and very strong domes in the temple of Jupiter at Spalati, and 
in the temple of Minerva Medica at Rome; the former consists 

of horizontal series of arches turned over each other, the in- 
terspaces being filled with concrete, the other being of doub- 
ly curved vaults turned between meridian arches, so that the 
dome is shaped like a muskmelon. Strictly speaking, the mediae- 
val ribbed vaults of all kinds are nothing but combinations of 
regular systems of ribs, whose intervals are filled by similar 
vaults of double curvature, which are partly spherical-ellipti- 
cal, partly horn-shaped ellipsoidal surfaces like those of the 
melon vault. (Fig. 153). 

The domes built of pots employed not only by the Romans but 
also by many modern architects for covering wide rooms with 
the minimum weight, hardly require consideration, since they 
are almost always covered by plastering. If the construction 
of such domes is to remain visible, the bottoms of the pots 
would be placed toward the centre of the dome, the joints be 
filled with mortar, cement or plaster, which might be painted 


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as. 
a Pits 


86 
or gilded, while the bottoms of the pots could be ornamented 
by pressed ornaments. 

The half domes of niches are chiefly distinguished from domes 
in their construction and decorative treatment by the fact, t 
that generally not their vertex but that point on their lower 
edge farthest from the eye of the observer is to be regarded 
ag their pole, so that the axis of the half dome is horizontal. 
Tf the half dome is to abut against an entire dome so as to 
resist the thrust, as in many buildings having the plan of the 
Creek cross, or terminates in a tunnel vault, it should be con- 
structed as a half dome with vertical axis and be decoratively 
treated accordingly or like an umprella, while domes over nich- 
es from the earliest times are usually treated in forms like 
a muscle shell and thus termed a concha. The concave attracting 
and inviting character of the niche leads the eye to the pole 
of the half dome or concha, and appears as that point of the 
construction where the eye feels restricted, from whence the 
energy of the whole appears to radiate, and which seems to have 
retired to the farthest point. Similar ideas had led almost all 
nations to decorate the concha by radiating forms, as if penc- 
ils of light radiated from the pole in all directions, which | 
may be compared with those of the sky when the sun sinks below 
the horizon. Hence in churches the pole of the niche is usually 
ornamented by the face of the divine being represented, or by 
a symbol representing this. Roman and Renaissance architects 
Henerally preferred to decorate the conchas of small niches by 
shells, especially in case of fountains and cascades. 

In Holland during the late Renaissance it #as a favorite id- 
ea to construct the domes of niches with radiating voussoirs 
diminishing toward the pole, this was carried so far as to cut 
bricks to form sharp intersections at the pole, while the rad- 
iating lines of the brick bond were only a quarter brick apart 
at the outer edge of the niche. 

All entire domes and domes over niches may then be termed u 
umbrella domes if their vertical axes are accented, whether 
actually divided in sections by great circles, or meridians 
and zones are only indicated as in church domes, sprinkled #i- 
th stars or decorated by soaring angels, etc.; all those domes 
over niches may briefly be termed shell domes, in wmhich the 
pole of the principal axis is treated as the principal point; 


| andte eaca ea antics yd saob etitne me starooed of 
emee oft bas .senesnon od bluow eed & 2&6 ono Lsoid 
ft et9n Te9T bas got add dotdw ak saob edoin 8 to sett 
902). ‘-tnenimotg shea eten gebie ttel bre tduit sdt sfide 
 skepen 38) 18 +) {nottemistes bas 19bie ne ietqsd) ,eoknot 
oO noayloy & gnitourtanos yd bsouhotg e178 ssmob evidnebasg 
“aan to eforto s nit sil eelgns saode ,t9vetany mict pine 
Bidd omsostinow nl .[sottqifie 2d of et emob edd ti seat 
7 ; vit , mot ,sords dd in yronylog safgnen s ylevem yllages 
. eit: ib dieq ni exe esmob svitnsbnag weteasa ITA weobin 
\b .o .d .8 atetg a4t yd olqmsxe rot ;e19hg ent yd bedse 

8b bd .d 9,0 8 sedote sdt no Bnidass ashinlanes 
) att to anther sitf smozaziog sat to aebie sit avods 
foq ont tuods bedtroemso1is sogyloy edt to eather od 
Yo I[esnozstbh astse18 94d to tled sad alanps stoteseqt 
jeeaq ed enelg s tI .sebta to aedmon nsve n& dsiw soog 
. ettgied Isape even dokdw,eedois edt to geottiev edt 
fe: ag ns ofni snob evitnebasg sit sefeteqes eidd ,anogylog 
(ged? \.66fans ead nogylog edt ea sovitnehnsg yas es Hae stto 
| ab isdivoent efortos eds dtin [eottnsdt ef sttolso sat 16 nel 
a -nogylog edt 
622kb # mor? bets100sb sd aysw(s Sfuoda smod svitnsinsg sal 

aad ti xedsev odd aebieed ;emo0d odd asdd usiv to tntog ine. 
189 sat ot 3ntbaogest109 ,etitoq oftatsstosisdo o bos taonol 
eat sonenimoyg oftedtes esaispe: doidw ,esdots sat Io e917 
bas [atnosittod seetuoo edd Yntken YI betoutdenoo yliauen 
at Yo ened ant of qu eavitnebnsg sdt mi yflenogech tua bslie 
oo oH .5n0b\ 2 28 anole basouttenod nedt ef dordn ,sttolss 
atatoq igetretostado edd of sonsietet sed yilaisten nottsioo9b 
-n eq sat mort ylinesbnegeshat batourtanos ed sttol{so. sat ti 10 
to tlind sie seodt nedw asqo1g yftostieg ef dokdw ,sevss 
‘eatsotg sbsu ton eta etntog otdeatretostado sat yesats0o I[ndaos 
ft bas exabeod sdT .beteotbhat yleoxem ote tO ettoleo sdt ao tae 
‘evietoeb od {ftw encteyet «© yd xettev edt to eonentaor. oat 
extt edt at nentl [snozsth Yo nokteotbai edt bas ,eeaeo aod 
oe eit nt aevitasbasq edt to daenqolevsh oot baa ,9aeo 
gt esastont yilaubace esvidasbhaog edT .oe ulfeops acd Liv 
- : eft vot aettinntioqqe brotta bas .etsiq edt mott disnge 
ro. yam yedt yenot{febem aelworto to Ismogyfog Yo nottoub 


brahim 
Ne 


As 


nif. ZA a , 4 


. Pes 6 ry 


87 
to decorate an entire dome by taking any axis other than a ver- 
tical one as a base would be nonsense, and the same would be 
true of a niche dome in which the top and rear were ignored, 
ahile the right and left sides were made prominent. (See Tec- 
tonics, Chapter on order and estimation, p. 8, jet seq.). 

Pendentive domes are produced by constructing a polygon of 
ani} form whatever, whose angles lie in a circle or in an ell- 
ipse, if the dome is to be elliptical. In architecture this is 
usually merely a regular polygon'with three, four, five or six 
sides. All regular pendentive domes are in part directly supps- . 
etted by the piers; for example by the piers a, b, c, d, the | 
remainder resting on the arches ac, cb, bd, da, erected 
above the sides of the polygon. The radius of the dome equals 
the radius of the polygon circumscribed about the polygon, and 
therefore equals the half of the greater diagonal of all poly- 
sons with an even number of sides. If a plane be passed through 
the vertices of the arches,which have equal heights,for regular 
polygons, this separates the pendentive dome into an upper ical- 
otte and as mapy pendentives as the polygon has angles. The p 
plan of the calotte is identical with the circle inscribed in 
the polygon. 

The pendentive dome should always be decorated from a differ- 
ent point of view than the dome; besides the vertex it has n 
lowest and n characteristic poirts, corresponding to the cent- 
res of the arches, which require esthetic prominence, they are 
usually constructed by making the courese horizontal and corb-— 
elled out diagonally in the pendentives up to the base of the 
calotte, which is then constructed alone as a dome. Hence the 
decoration naturally has reference to the characteristic points, 
or if the calotte be constructed independently from the penden- 
tives, which is perfectly proper when those are built of hori- 
zontal courses, the characteristic points are not made promin- 
ent on the calotte or are merely indicated. The borders and t 
the prominence of the vertex by a keystone will be decisive in 
both cases, and the indication of diagonal lines in the first _ 
case, and the development of the pendentives in the second, 
will be equally so. The pendentives gradually increase in width 
upward from the piers, and afford opportunities for the intro- 
duction of polygonal or circular medallions; they may be so d 


aw 4 il YY =. wae of 
ay tietiae aiden ait 


. a cia ail ‘ ; 
» bapotent qilaghst3 et ‘tnemantio eft Jadd ,bederoosh 
5 sd bluode ettoleo edt .sttofso ant to t12q tasnol 
i mee |: For ue e9oint0D 2 Yo wsbhtod @ yd asvitnebnes ed? 
id sottqiife ,rwfoottotmse .{etmemree tedsdedn .eeaod {fA | 
Beh. _ otfoev edt stsnimist of snoteyod a otinpst ,amiot isddo 
Beet sit et eeel sit ¢lusv & to oet1 edt t9if{ama sat 
bes .ytilidatea to enotsthnoo edi ys troqgue yistse yeu 
fo ne ,fots bstnicg 8 to Sas. ai e@ Sala atk a9te 
yisdeten 10 otfodetsq 6 . sixes tolsa L[eoktasv agin 
,th no beosly od yam doidn baol sat si [ftw 1998073 
1 od ot betieps? ef tadt ddgtew odd od [ftw t9se981h ont 
had  eyta{ideate ati smgens of xedd9ev esi 20 
qlisoiniocet ayanle ai smobs to noiteiymoo sat r9ddt0'l 
99 at Rntnego me Ons .msge fse7g to eatinev ni dfuo 
4 seat to noisetmbs add 10} yltuseq .xstiev edd de bert 
» ote .alatistem gnthiiod aatrtefod to seoqiteq sat 10% 
-eeneo [stosqea 10% sefn1 antwolf{[ot ent ,weiv to adniog 
. {fsue to aemob talnuotiotasa Sas [atasayee ;bev 
fieme yrsv si doidn ,Snoteyed s dtiw bedarnit? ylisqoxg 
Jouetd edt YT steotdt on tiexe of ge Dsgede of sd bluode 
Snote siefqmoo s .stunsom nietien s abesoxe smob ed’ 
. ‘ meqe Rainteme? eitaso add ,snoteyex # of sldarstoig 
oy ¢ ‘que fotdx bas ,elaiveteam zaib{tad gnitarod ,Adaef Sart 
stalt seal 10 stom smote 2 dtin oelirt ed 
ee! pated? zntbesoxs tdgied # atin gomob bseter ro betlisé 
“eviersm:ettapet stoteiedd bar ysw wsiloosg & ni bebdeol sd teum 
i o Seana nt astteron bebysgenes bfod sd ysm doin ,aenoteyox 
oy qesh brs dotdt ,yvsed to sforto # sd Sinode to ,asmoh 
> szoitd sit{ eemob ehisl prev al .gods edt te asqo eemob ni at 
edt ,sonetol to [sibsiteo sid .om08 te nosdtnel sii gartsvoo 
ait Biabievetvant’ «2 bo domed> sav emo ta t9et)eT .2 Io dowdo 
neds floes svode osfeag ote esmoh ssadt ~nobnol at [vst .2 to 20 
8 .ert200 eft te Sofnsqo na Rnived enob eart to Jesnol edt 
$ odd efinn ,mietnel edt 3nitsoqqne bane seqysete Bnted bnooss 
dedd ditw tdaienw seodw ,saob aninevoo [sntetxe add at o1t 
dt to teurdt [stnosiiod edt dtin aonidmoo emoh Saooes edt 
Fr}! enn edt to antt 19qqu odT .e1meseetg [soitiev &. 28 smob 261 
hs yd betoennoo od yem bra ytell[s3 & trogque asd yew snob 
- dotan «pack bnooee dt bo aks Qnkeod 1sqqe edt Adin shanao 


er 


mn , ‘ 


Py : 


88 
decorated, that the ornament is gradually developed from the 
lowest part of the calotte. The calotte should be divided from 
the pendentives by a border or a cornice. | 

All domes, whether segmental, semicircular, elliptical or of 
other forms, require a keystone to terminate the vault. 

The smaller the rise of a vault the less is the load that it 
mag safely support by its conditions of stability, and the gre- 
ater its rise as in case of a pointed arch, an elliptical arch 
with vertical major axis, a parabolic or catenary arch, the g 
greater will be the load which may be placed on it, and also - 
the greater will be the weight that is required to be placed 
on its vertex to ensure its stability. 

Farther the completion of adome is always technically diffa- 
cult in vaults of great span, and an opening is commonly requ- 
ired at the vertex, partly éor the admission of light, partly 
for the purpose of hoisting building materials, etc. From these 
points of view, the following rules for special cases are deri- 
ved; Segmental and semicircular domes of small span are not ) 
properly finished with a keystone, which in very small domes 
should be so shaped as to exert no thrust. If the diameter of 
the dome exceeds a certain measure, a complete stone ring is 
preferable to a keystone, the centre remaining open for admit- 
ting light, hoisting building materials, and which can at last 
be filled with a stone more or less flat. 

Stilted or raised domes with a height exceeding their radius 
must be loaded in a peculiar way and therefore require ‘massive 
keystones, which may be bold suspeyded rosettes in complete d. 
domes, or should be a circle of heavy, thick and deep voussoi- 
rs in domes open at the top. In very large domes like those c 
covering the Pantheon at Rome, the cathedral of Florence, the 
church of S. Peter at Rome, the church od S. finévieve in Paris 
or of &. Paul in london, three domes are palec above each other, 
the lowest or true dome having an opening at its centre, the 
second being steeper and supporting the lantern, mhile the th- 
ird is the external covering dome, whose weight with that of 
the second dome combines with the horizontal thrust of the fi- 
rst dome as a vertical pressure. The upper ring of the inner 
dome may then support a gallery and may be connected by a col- 
onnade with the upper cosing ring od the second dome, which 


i es . 

> ton bluode shanaofoo sidt tod jarstnal edt adrogque 
| dP bfhode tom .encb tewol edt no baol « tae1Z 
‘denof of3 secs dtod at eonte ,emob buoves ead Yo nit gate 
ow 5 ee adt bane .bntifet omy ee af od biyor eaob 

~ea9leau sd 

SAREE semob ds evactsnedll bas ezntt sateolo sat 
tiaptioqqgs svih asieq Lerstorcrse fnenimorg teor Sas 
0 Beno hetonitenos ylsdytl ab ,tmemtsett dots ylueluol 
J 6! anob sd? Yo nno1o sot tadt tromexrtupes sit ,sert 
ca bewolfod to sev edt ebnsmeh sidtenoy as yltdytt es bet 
749! ——— gael to ston aedd¢ fokdw (ants Yateolo sad at 
131100 ous ‘ao s{idw .deth teft » to ee3he sat Yo wtot edd aod 
geo geeb ristt eved ot been gotbsol er tupes ted? esnoh aaoite 
tagoq @s snofteioosh to tibtew dowm ee déin bebsol ens 
dastmed to notsouttenoo sat tiaisq sewob avitnebdast 
» Bdt Svode ettof[ao e to eoalq at asnod batlize 
{fe /goitoottanoo to sbhbom a ,eevidaednsy eit eetentmied 

nt bentasas sew fotin .e1etoatidows entinasy= of variuosg 
BD Y pi sldeitivent: ei dotdw base efyta eupsenenod donet? 
ifede sw ,e1swot Yo Snemisers oot It" aoisoennoo al 
e Sos elfen eettrogqee ated? dtiw nottosanoo ak eemob 
Sdn \nozefoo silt of ersvpe ond wort enoitirenertd 3nimict 
, s {few es ,anoitoseieing yavo arewot [aveartbem xt bapot 
. se90o%0d9 to gemoh Ons atsu0od tento 
a a eetinev’ [avesibey .J 
riots eat mo beasd ers bas bsddta ems etivev [svesibsy 
B esostre staveqes 1f60¢ Sod ,emob sda baa edinayv fannue 
ant eradiy edt neewted eemob to enoistoy 88 betouttane> 
siete etisos? tedd etInev ret2atol[s exe seadd of 
| etfusv stows [evearbe! .» 
\ ent To sdanes feretioa1te sat bewolfot evad sf 
of sarinn gnimooed toodtin beqofeveh sen tr ee wet of Ficav 
notsosstetnt eit mo Seeed ayenlte et dotdw .1sdosiedo edt 
986 ee ssnthats edt to mot Inortgti{[s edT .atisev [sannd 
a. foss tot gatrettib aatetuoenote ak seonstasvacont 
‘Messi eert of Idguce sfuav ator, [evesthen saT .snote 
beatot bae .¢loav ators navof ead Yo esonetnevnoont [fe 
s yfno et tnomegaaiie edt nea? .ealotiotmen eve adian ([snogecbh 
ede tt yemoes(dnomt ees{ 10 stom esonenpesdoo dtiv beatadste 


b.~ 


89 
supports the lantern; but this colonnade should not ‘cause too 
great a load on the lower dome, nor should it support the iclo- 
sing ring of the second dome, since in both cases the lower 
dome would be in danger of falling, and the second dome would 
be useless. : 

The closing rings and keystones of domes being the highest 
ani most prominent stroictural parts give opportunity for part- 
icularly rich treatment, in lightly constructed domes of low 
rise, the requirement that the crown of the dome should be loa- 
ded as lightly as possible demands the use of hollowed sections 
in the closing ring, which then more or less closely approxima- 
tes the form of the edges of a flat dish, while on the contrary, 
strong domes that require loading need to have their deep cro- 
wns loaded with as much weight of decorations as possible. ) 

Pendentive domes permit the construction of hemispherical or 
stilted domes in place of a calotte above the cornice, which 
terminates the pendentives, a mode of construction especially 
peculia:: to Byzantine architectura, which was retained in the 
French Romanesque style and which is justifiable in many cases. 

In connection with the treatment of towers, we shall describe 
domes in connection with their supporting walls and arches, f 
forming transitions from the square to the octagon, which are 
found in mediaeval towers over intersections, as well as in 
other towers and domes of churches. 

be ediaeval Vaults. 

Mediaeval vaults are ribbed and are based on the groin and 
tunnel vaults and the dome, but their separate surfaces are 
constructed as portions of domes between the ribs. In addition 
to these are cloister vaults that require mention. 

a. Mediaeval groin vault. 

We have followed the structural principle of the Roman groin 
vault so far as it was developed without becoming untrue to i 
its character, which is always based on the intersection of two 
tunnel vaults. The elliptical form of the diagonal ribs ‘caused 
inconveniences in stonecutting differing for each separate st 
stone. The mediaeval groin vault sought to free itself from 
all inconveniences of the Roman groin vault, and formed the 
diagonal ribs as semicircles. Then this arrangement is only a 
attained with consequences more or less troublesome; if the 


9 aerol ate. anKoto nkedd uiaetohone ete eelete sbie | 
> tied edt Yo soneiettid edt yt adty Lenogsib edt to 
fone abta odd mom? sett nedt teom tiuav edt jobie tied 
a godt to eaworo edt sates ot gatilin ef sao eeelnn .mKoto 

Aas ei miei ,tiosy edt to tedt en tdzted omen ont of 20 
Lov & psoubory Aotde ~atdared tnavettib owt to atnamtuds ett 
nent snititte yi to ,elatiqao edt to Jnenteort brawl we 
eaniesely yrsv ton ek doide ,asno 
{ telwgnedoon nsdw beaseton? sie seoneatnevnoonl sat . 
bane ebie dtod bas ,atinsv aio1; yd betsvoo od od 
ted gneiwsttib sven aedt daum on .relnors9insa od oF 918 
So eabati dtoi tlite 10 ,ptasmtuds git Yo to anwoto edd 
co yIevs sintosdidore Levesibem no eetusoel oT .asdors 

,bediaoseb af geonstnavnoonk sesdt Yo Iavome1 sat 10k 
af sie ew eastyta ofdtoD bne aotttegasT oad qd beyolgns 
ee of Intog bsate (siistsm edt mort seed? teeit yao 
% ee sbentesnoo od yes taemqoleveb evitsi1ooeb 

ie titen adin Isnoaeth tot dose [sottqi ff: edt to sen sat 

vl f-etdd tk one .$i tot betetitedun od coms [evo ne TE bab 
tic eter ylbred et tf .sidteeoq sa setinso yasm ae mort Aon 
dt ,weloortsiner ese sefois [anonerh edt tr yydtiLonitnoo asi 
ber stiedt S\f toons vi betlitea od of etisost escorts site 
getq edt to gnthbloom saogmt odd to anosds ad? sonra 
m skool dotdy ,sedoms sit to adage ssn0f sid I[seonoo satan 
pet tin maqe shiw to seott nf neds meqe [leme to gedots et 
gost eeis-of tluav ocd 10T tod ;2usede edt Yo noktoe org Len 
tom yao ton ei mnor> nwo sti of aedote ebia edd Yo ennor odd 
798 Si (phawotg ottedtae so efdatetety neve ai dad ylae 
bined ob etivavy font .bstoelsen 9d nnoto edt to nottansmullt 
“ ae bre ,qeone sort « to tedd sod sigaesiq To ashi ond \ov 
i Citak me ot ahnoqast109 anwoto ated? to dyed end at Saget 
— to efdared ewer edt gnintete1 exoot wol a] .naqe to 
ed¢ gnioelg to tnetbegxe edd yolgms meo en ,asdo1w sble 
199 ie 264 Yo s2odt wnoled aedors fponath eft to efmiot gat 
ae Wiens | been ed yam forse Iataemgse sdt 10 .29 
ftkb seeds te etniog 3nigntzqge to sottombownsir sat 10% 8A 

a -eidd ,elec¢igeo beiusy ylantbnoqse 109 odd brs eddgiod tas 
%o antesefq deom bas festots edt eldadsednoont at tnomegne 
ou Hesoia teon sit ,yteiusy ati to tnoooon a0 shodssu oldtsaog 


90 
side aisles are semicircular, their crowns are lower than those 
of the diagonal ribs by the difference of the half diagonal and 
half side; the vault must then rise from the side arches to the 
crown, unless one is willing to raise the crowns of these arch- 
es to the same height as that of the vault, either by making | 
the abutments of two different heights, which produces a very 
ankward treatment of the capitals, or by stilting the side ar- 
ches, which is not very pleasing. ; 

The inconveniences are increased when sectangular bays are 
to be covered by groin vaults, and both side and groin arches 
are to be semicircular; we must then have different heights of 
the crowns or of the abutments, or stilt toth kinds of side 
arches. In lectures on mediaeval architecture every expedient 
for the removal of these inconveniences is described, that was 
employed by the Traksition and Cothic styles. We shall here 
only treat these from the material stand point so far as the 
decorative development may be concerned. 

The use of the ielliptical arch for diagonal ribs may be avoi- 
ded if an oval arch be substituted for it, and if this be str- 
uck from as many centres as possible, it is hardly inferior in 
its continuity; if the diagonal arches are semicircular, the. 
side arches require to be stilted by agout 1/8 their radius, 
since the abacus of the impost moulding of the pier would oth- 
erwise conceal the lower ends of the arches, which looks worse 
in arches of small span than in those of wide span with an eq- 
ual projection of the abacus; buat for the vault to rise from 
the crowns of the side arches to its own crown is not only not 
ugly but is even preferable on esthetic grounds, if the lesser 
illumination of the crown be neglected. Such vaults do not con- 
vey the idea of pressure but that of a free sweep, and an inc- 
rease in the height of their crowns corresponds to an increase 
of span. In low rooms retaining the same heights of crown and 
side arches, we can employ the expedient of placing the spring- 
ing joints of the diagon&l arches below those of the side arch- 
es, or the segmental arch may be used. 

As for the introduction of springing points at these differ- 
ent heights and the correspondingly varied capitals, this arr- 
angement is incontestably the richest and most pleasing of all 
possible methods on account of its variety, the most pleasing 


wie! eee 
; , ory . 


ry 


uA 


 yfteoo teom edt osla fod yleiwtontte dnetetenoo bas” 
fatnomanom mi aoesex afd tot sortitose of gnrilin 
es ,anaen isfgmie yd beniatys sd yea bne sat segsoed 
to beddos ad of ef .otdtod Joetreq e1om edd at enod yfore 
@igt tl .easbi Yo. ysseveq yd ainetbeqxs fis teenit adit to 
-limaaean ott agnso [snottqeoxe nt yolqme of boris 
,fatvias amese [smton Ankdtyieve medin ,gae ni eld 
sn ef209 a8dgid edd tee 2 ton odd 
$0 anoid2oqo1g neem to nottowrtence Yo yItevo7 to eases AI 
eft to antt{ite eterehom s ,betinev ed of moot sat 
. tfusv edd to snot sft to aobetex eatarsbom Bp sea Ilor 
~ emeitze sit sonborr of betyebe deed ansem ead 
al .ytetaqoig 19%e91% ya Sidanietis ,tostie antarolg 
| to ennot edt to edthted sad ativevy nto 2n0ldn 
gn actors [snozath sd¢ to enodd dae asbte asan0f edd no 
ba sad yiesn02 ent no tod ,se1geh emoe ni tefdo doses stent 
ai ct sbeditte y{iershienco od of eikspet esdots sbie 
eafiua bayolque sfyte otdvo2 yfise edd test nwond [low ef S¥Ld 
noo 8 ot betntog eedove shia sat shan bna atnetbeqxs eld 
shen @gnoo 30i9d toodsin enworo tiedt Yo extdyied edt Yo lost 
_— b eid sot hentete: yfno ess doidw ,do1s aslwotio edd een 
t [fs gnttountenos to sofodo end bed rast yed? .aodowe Le 
hg wr oe [snogets odd sot ea eutis: emse sat diin esdoiwr sbdie 
one “ettoetuov {fe senaoad sldetsterq ylleotados? ef dofda bas 
aye bane efsoqnt {atosqe ,etelynes smee ond yd Pdgu0 tw od neds 
8 697dt ed? to eannow sdt ;hesiapst Snted ylno esnote 
2 oth MH sidgied edt 10 jsdgied ouse sit ta Jon asda 
noqs5 eodove betatod edt antism ,oteaeslq te besnente 
betatog Ieretslinps shan sd neat ysa doide ,eeedt 
ebte to wor1en ond gedt on 10 ,betlide od of Baitt 
eonely sntgnizqgea sommoo 6 fain estore teonal 
autber elaniea 6 sen ct sootothst, teom eyanls ai J] 
ba of bas ,ylleubevz sett of anot> edt wolfe of ,eedoms edt 
ae totems tots edt oxen oT .tdgted aredt S\I tuods esdows odd 
Ee ‘Yiev jon sd tiuev aft saso at pee ylertine et betniog 
On | sbebeol tin iged 
. tors weluorto sd avo Sila lahe od of et dow betniog sal. 
| mort eometettib etarabom 4 dtiw sevsoed ,asdois sabia edt i0t 
al 2 ebeitingttS bae Satiiges ,dnsoptg stom ar 3 dois bases acd 


a 
9 
‘and consistent structurally but also the most costly; to be w 
willing to sacrifice for this reason in monumental structures 
because the end may be attained: by simpler means, as unfortun- 
ately done in the more perfect Cothic, is to be robbed of one 


of the finest art expedients by poverty of ideas. If it is de- 


sired te employ in exceptional cases the extreme means allowa- 
ble in art, when everything normal seems trivial, one should . 
then not fear the higher cost. 

In case of poverty of construction or mean proportions of 
the room to be vaulted, a moderate stilting of the arches as 
well as a moderate raising of the crown of the vault forms 
the means best adapted to produce the extreme measure of a 
pleasing effect, attainable py sreater propriety. In quite’ 
oblong groin vaults the heights of the crowns of the arches 
on the longer sides and those of the diagonal arches approx— 
imate each other in some degree, but on the contrary the end 
side arches require to be considerably stilted. 
blgjt is well knewn that the early Cothic style employed suita- 
ble expedients and made the side arches pointed to obtain con- 
trol of the heights of their crowns without being compelled to 
use the circular arch, which was only retained for the diagon- 
al arches. They then had the choice of constructing all the 
side arches with the same radius as for the diagonal arches, 
and which is technically preferable because all voussoirs can 
then be wrought by the same template, special imposts and key- 
stones only being required; the crowns of the three arches are 
then not at the same height; or the heights ofthe arches are 
arranged at pleasure, making the pointed arches dependent on 
these, which may then be made equilateral pointed arches requ- 
iring to be stilted, or so that the narrow or side arches are 
lancet arches with a common springing plane. 

It is always most judicious to use a single radius for all 
the arches, to allow the crown to rise gradually, and to stilt 
the arches about 1/8 their height. To make the groin arches 
pointed is entirely useless, in case the vault be not very 
heavily loaded. 

The pointed arch is to be preferred over the circular arch 
for the side arches, because with a moderate difference from 
the round arch it is more piquant, aspiring and dignified. If 


SS eee 


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92 
we once become accustomed not to recognize the Gothic style in 
every case in which the pointed arch may be used, it becomes 
allowable in the Renaissance as well, to be employed whenever 
appropriate. The early Renaissance disdained it as little as 
Cothic rejected the circular arch; the spirit of each style 
#as too discreet to reject anything practically usable, from 
blind subjection to principles. 

The separate compartments between the ribs were always so 
covered in mediaeval vaults as to make their highest line cur- 
ved, and they therefore became parts of domes. Tao modes of 
vautting were in use, the vaults being either constructed aft- 
er the classic method of building tunnel vaults by courses at 
right angles to the akis of the tunnel vault, or diagonally in 
later times so that the length of one half the side arch being 
transferred to the diagonal arch gave the point, which was con- 
nected with the crown of the side arch. The other points of t 
the diagonal arch were connected with the corresponding points 
of the central curved line of that compartment of the vault. 
The separate portions of the vault very heavily loaded the di- 
agonal arches in the first case, but in the second they inter- 
sected above the ribs, so that this bonding together was of i 
itself quite strong, and the ribs proper had but little to swe 
port and served rather as stone centerings to somewhat relieve 
the vaulting. 

If the vault exceeds the normal width of the smaller bays, 
as first happened in the vaults over the intersections under 
the towers of the larger French cathedrals, there were two 
modes of dividing the groin vault into smaller compartments, 
it was either divided in plan into 8 equal though smaller 
compartments to form octopartite groin vaults; the inconven- 
dences of springing points of unequal heights, of unequal hei- 
ghts of crowns, of stilting or the use of different forms of 
arches were increased, for a d and db (Fig. 154) become semi- 
circles, and a c and dc are different quadrants if pointed 
arches are avoided: but if they are used the diagonal ribs 
ac, bc are quadrants, c d andc e are half pointed arches, 
while a @, b @ are either semicircular or are entire pointed 
arches, the problem may also be solved by the use of segmental 
arches without introducing too many unpractical results. Or the 


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93 

groin vault may be divided into smaller compartments by cutting 
each of the original compartments into three. The results are 
as follows; ad + dc (Fig. 155) is greater in plan than a c; 
if the crown of the vault is to be its highest point, which is 
not absolutely necessary since a vault may rise higher than i 
its crown, when the crowns of the side arches are higher than 
that of the vault, causing the centre lines of the compartmenhs 
to descend toward the keystone, the radius of the longes arch, 
as ad +doc iis to be taken as the basis of the construction 
of the vault; in the later middle ages this arch was termed 
the “principal arch.” The keystone c is at the height of a d 
+ dc. The point d’ lying above d has the height d d’in the 
vertical projection. How shall the crown c of the vault be 
connected with the springing point a? If the half diagonal ac 
of the plan be laid off in the vertical projection from a to c’,, 
a brief consideration proves that the vault rib above ac of 
the plan must be a pointed arch differing very little from the 
semicircle adt+dc. 

On the contrary, if the diagonal be assumed as a basis for 
the construction and the diagonal rib be made semicigcular, 
the crown c of the vault is lower than in the first case, its 
height being ac. If ad (Fig. 156) be drawn in the vertical 
projection, and dc of the plan be laid off from a to ce”, the 
point above c”does not have a height equal to that of the cronn 
c’ of the vault but is lower. Therefore in general this method 
leads to no result. One must rather either strike an arch from 
the point @” over d to the keystone c with the radius of the 
diagonal rib (Fig. 156), or transfer the magnitude c d of the 
plan from c to a”’ towards a, erecting a perpendicular d@” to 

cut the quadrant in @’”. The height d’” is then that of the 
point lying over tke point d of the plan. We may now strike 
an arch from a’” tnward a with the radius of the diagonal rib, 
or draw a segmental arch with the same radius whose centre z 
lies on the line a’”a” produced, cutting off the height a d”” 
over the springing point, or lastly a circle may be dram#n 
through a’” with radius a d tangent to a vertical drawn at a. 
It becomes evident that turn and twist as we may, inconvenien- 
ces will result always and must be taken into account. 

A few considerations connected with observations of actual 


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~ 


94 

structures will place the various difficulties in a correct 
light, which result from the construction of groin vaults,in 
accordance withiimediaeval principles. If the sections of all 
vault ribs and side arches are similar, or those of the side 
arches are composed of the sections of one rib and two half 
ribs, it will always be preferable to employ a single radius 
for all ribs and side arches, to simplify the process of con- 
struction. In this case one has énly a choice of using segmen- 
tal or pointed arches in addition to the semicircular arch of 
the diagonal rib. The form of the segmental arch is generally 
associated with the idea of the secular, of the absolutely es- 
sential at the expense of beauty and of the mean, while with 
the pointed arch is joined the idea of the ecclesiastical, the 
monkish, which is not agreeable to ewery one. This contains a 
hint concerning the choice of one or the other form of archs . 
If the segmental arches are neither principal ribs nor side 
arches but only intermediate ribs, they are not unpleasing in 
contrast to circular or pointed arches; since their oblique 
springing from the vertical gives a picturesque effect to the 
vault; vertical division walls rise from a to a”” and d’” in 
the example (Fig. 156), if the arch d’”aNV be segmental, whose 
joints remain horizontal up to the commencement of the compart- 
ments of the vault and are limited by the rib d”7d’”. 

To take a fancy to the exclusive use of circular arches would 
in many cases result in the greatest amount of labor with an 
esthetic effect affording very little pleasure; highly stilted 


arches appear well only in exceptional cases, and a strong cur- 


vature that detaches small circular arches from their tangents 
is very disadvantageous. To discover the best relation between 
the amount of labor and a pleasing result in a special problem 
frequently requires many trials befora a decision can be made. 
The two examples of the division of the groin vault into sev- 
eral compartments include all complex varieties of multaparti- 
te and ornamental groin vaults. Multapartite groin vaults may 
be erected on any polygon, the heights of side arches may be 
assumed as reguired, as well as that of the vault, since the 
crowns of the arches may be arranged to bring the springing 
points of these arches high above those of the diagonal ribs, 
which is often necessary in vaults of towers, or desirable for 


| 
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95 
free admission of light and to avoid transmitting the horizon- 
tal thrust of the compartments of the vault to the side nalls, 
the vault then rising consi¥erably from its kepstone to the s 
side arches. 

The richest and most complex ornamental vaults are easily 
solved by the simple example, among which we include all ribb- 
ed vaults divided in compartments in various ways, which may | 
be derived from the groin vault with the exception of the star 
vault, which is to be regarded as an ornamental vault; still 
structural investigations are to be made in each individual 
case to make it as clear as possible. Ef one starts from the 
principle that the crown of the vault must be its highest point, 
that all its ribs must have the same radius of curvature, and 
all intersections of the ribs must always be higher toward the 
crown, the ’principal arch’ of the vault becomes greater than 
the half diagonal and = ab +bc+cd = the sum of the dist- 
ances between the horizontal projections of these intersections, 
by means of which a constant increase in height is possible, 
between the springing point and the crown. To the points 4, b, 
c, ad, e, f of the plan correspond the heights a a, > ‘b, 1¢ 38, 
dd, ee, f f of the vertical projections. "From cogceof the’ 4’, 
plan we obtain c g on Bhe vertical projection with the curve 
c’a”, or b g” with the curve b’a’”. The height ¢ e’ ean then 
be always taken at pleasure. If the half diagonal af be taken 
as the principal arch, lay off from f on the vertical project- 
ion (Fig. 158) the distances fc, f b, f e toward a, erecting 
perpendiculars at those points, whose intersections with the 
quadrant a f’. with radius a f’ give the heights b, c, e, &, f. 
all points then lie on the surface of a sphere, and the vault 
then becomes an ornamental vault, which we term a star vault. 

If the largest possible principal arch =agteé b ¢+.a b+ 
be+ed+di1 be taken ar the basis of the construction, the 
rise of the vault would be great (Fig. 159); if a low ellipse 
or a Tudor arch were taken instead of a circle, a favorite form 
in the late Cothic of the Netherlands and of England, the hei- 
ghts a, £”, b”, a”, a”, f” would be obtained, or the points a, 
etipadis, waVigeatis ae, of°Re 

If one does not follow the two previous modes of procedure, 
for determining the altitudes of the ornamental groin vault by 
a single radius, but first assumes the height of the crown 4, 


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96 

the side arches A B and BC (Fig. 160)sconnect these crowns by 
the arches a’d’, which correspond to the simple curvature of 
the groin vault, transfer to the vertical projection the leng- 
ths a b, ac, a dof the plan, erecting verticals at b and e, 
ahich intersect the curve a’d’ in b’c’, there will be obtained | 
an ornamental groin vault, all ahose ribs will be constructed 
with different radii. The two first modes of construction may : 
be termed German, and that just described is French; it was 
chiefly employed in France and England during the middle ages. 
Vautts on the German plan generally have some advantages over 
the last, which produces a monotonous and consistent effect, 
while on the contrary the former appear rather capriciously v 
varied. On practical grounds they are to be preferred to the 
French. 

8. Mediaeval domical vaults. 

Simple mediaeval domes are constructed differently from the 
Romang in general the dome was not much liked. The ornamental 
domical vaults of the late middle ages, which we have already 
considered as star vaults, are preferably employed for cover- 
ing polygonal rooms; all intersections of the ribs lie in the 
surface of a sphere, whose radius equals that of the inscribed 
circle. The compartments are covered as spherical surfaces of 
small curvature between the ribs. 

Since the compartments are the stronger in both sroin and s 
spherical vaults, the more that they are curved in cross sect- 
ion, i.e., the greater the rise of any single arch of the com 
partment in proportion to its span, in strong vaults these con- | 
partments are sometimes s6 strongly curved, that their highest } 
point is considerably above the crown of the vault (Fig. 161). 
Such so-called “full breasted” groin and spherical vaults app- 
ear more animated and varied than the “flat breasted”, since | 
the strongly curved compartments afford a richer contrast of | 
light and shade. Therefore the “full breasted” are to be pre- 4 
ferred, if not painted, to the “flat breasted” if painted. 

y. Mediaeval tunnel vaults. 

The simple mediaeval tunnel vault without ribs differs as 
little from the Roman as the simple dome, but the ornamental 
tunnel vault is different in very essential points. Thet of 
semicircular cross section is formed in the simplest way by 


Xe 

ieied'ous ot [supe (Sdr .3i%) o 8 nage tied edt xniden 
p conte . 9 to tedt eleups f tntoq edt to sbutidin ent 
ews bevaennos ete do .0 statog oat ylonsupeenong 
ie  .noktostotq [sottasv add mo soeky 

m effuev [eottqalls rot slietiog et nottourtance sat 
 & extoyes bas wol yrev sta enoot edt TI .auoor wol 10% 
PF feqtontay pene siet yaa soo ,neqe tiad edt nsdt eeol 
B bas datbnalivedtey add at es dows wobyT 10 Istnomygse 
'3ntfourtenco to sbom fersten Jaow sat teY .madeyez 
2 do78 [snonsth edt exist of od [liw tinev [ennot Lad 
298 & eben at dofde ,fors [aqtomivg sad we CSL .3a%) 
Tin base eather ems add déte ebam nedd 918 edit Ile 
rte fennot {sottqtife ae to soetiva sad mo oi! enot 
| o(SOL 23%) .fsotdvev ef aixa toler 

"seni af edis to esitiee boooee & emoot is ytel nt 
Sin ee 2 evs dotdw Sane ,(25r .3kT) moteye tevitt sit to ssodt 
i? of dourse ed neo edits ,tedtio® .eslgtontiqg emee odd no 
? cae if ataiog gnigniaqge ditw sedors fataeazes 28 aller 
feddao* ed yet tinev fennod dé zeentl gntaaiace fatener 
fionrtendo esedt (fA .eyew bstaev teom edt nf beatae 
poném book yns ai betdesrd y[fot ynted snottstasv tLedd 
Seods ashtenoo of yf[no sted aved on .nottoutsanoo ofdd 
adiosy feteowento seedT .sottos1y ntehom nt trettoimit Jeon 
sifusy Pets¥too wewol sat of enottslen etamttnt sven abaid {fe 
t vino ws mort snisettib ¢ylfeatdneeas ,m9ea ed yfiess yaa ee 
yen ew GA earettoo to bastank efromtreqmos hedloav 2eived 
Whitt te snitinev to sbom edt nf yteesenenn ers pedis sat 

sgabieeqe qitotite ,etnentseqmoo edt to woxe edt of esf 
#6 ‘to estoege & aw1ct tnemdseymoo edt to bod xota sad 
ton eeob dadt ,aehbe gnifoeetetnt ond anole dit 3nf 
| -tfoav eft to sostroe edt baoyed 

tune [atnemenio bsyolque eantienmas otdtoD adtal ant 
27%q moinne Yo atot sat svat etnemfraqmod seodw ,sdin 
Miusv wetetofo 18 batlvev uated aud? ,seoataua bevigo 
oat qlletoeges ,(8df .gfy) ascetine asmnk beviwo yftaysle 
ie noktoursenos dokid of gnoled ylleottioeye atfvev dow? 
ocbomabay vatatbliod fsotadoet ylesg at hetasint ad of syis 
‘gate  Jengdm ffnme div tootts foie s souborg of bertash at 

4 4 “Gad faey beddts Lavertben to eevitow sviteross] .4 


My Dyck 4 tina 


97 
making the half span ac (Fig. 162) equal to the height c c’}, 
the altitude of the point b equals that of c’, since a b = ac’. 
consequently the points b, ¢,,b are connected by a straight p 
piece on the vertical projection. 

The construction is suitable for elléptical vaults required 
for low rooms. If the rooms are very low and require a height 
less than the half span, one may take as a principal arch as 
segmental or Tudor arch as in the Netherlandish and English 
system. Yet the most natural mode of constructing the ornamen- 
tal tunnel vault will be to take the diagonal arch a be ba 
(Fig. 163 as the principal arch, which is made a semicircle; 
all ribs are then made with the same radius and all intersect- 
ions lie on the surface of an elliptical tunnel vault, whose | 
major axis is vertical. (Fig. 164). 

In larger rooms a second series of ribs is inserted between 
those of the first system (Fig. 165), and which are constructed 
on the same principles. Further, ribs can be struck to the side 
malls af segmental arches with springing points lying above the 
general springing lines; the tunnel vault ay be further orna- 
mented in the mest varied ways. All these constructions and t 
their variations being fully treated in any good manual of Co- 
thic construction, we have here only to consider those matters 
most important in modern practice. These ornamental vaults of 
all kinds have intimate relations to the Roman coffered vaults, 
as way easily be seen, essentially differing from them only in 
having vaulted compartments instead of coffers. As we have seen, 
the ribs are unnecessary ‘in the mode of vaulting at right ang- 
les to the axes of the compartments, strictly speaking, since 
the brick bond of the compartment forms a species of stiffen- 
ing rib along the intersecting edges, that does not project b_ 
beyond the surface of the vault. 

The late Gothic sometimes employed ornamental vaults without 
ribs, whose compartments have the form of sunken pyramids with 
curved surfaces, thus being vaulted ar cloister vaults with 
slightly curved inner surfaces (fig. 166), especially in Saxony. 
Such vaults specifically belong to brick construction and des- 
erve to be imitated in purely technical buildings, and when it 
is desired to produce a rich effect with small means. 

5. Decorative motives of mediaeval ritbed vaults. 


ee remear a es 
’ ae u 7 i : 


Ientetxe edt slttee tadt ataonelo svidiniteb aT 
etoted esvisemodd adia edt ore slusv Isvesibea ont to 
edt ,betebranco ybaetle snomejnatie [softtemos3; tiedd 
it atnentreqnos sit to saodt of anotanemth skedt to anot 
ana atedt syods efnemgolevebh .msnotsyex ,selkicrg 
e2tnensttaymoo edt to noktatooeh sdt ylteel 

at bewshbrenoo ed [[tw eteogut sat to tnemtsasxt saT 
Jiqso tied? to bne atioqgue edt to emiot edt déiw no 
J ot et tedx of esvfostpo tint! 19d etotersatd [fade ow 
efqxe ylinsioittve seed ead efdT stieeti tiney ett to 
“gniemer ylno si <atniog baste [sotndoat bas oiveddias 
ge sent Znintstaoo amoot nt dotin:,eedotw sbhie adi sads 
i gaotts oiem .eliaw edd ‘tin bas reitexot eaedt fosanoo 
| got efdsattes’ bos yisersosa edia velleme baa atlo 
avotnene gedo1s abie edt ti ;amoeset oftedides baa Leo 
>» edd Yo elfew edt anidroqqne eedoisdo to seodt olf! ebe 
teat ,.ofs ,atallseo,fesenoieise to seods 10 .yt0s, 
dd ,ebeol fenistxs tedto das nem ,stnemelgnt ,owtinrist 
‘eelets [arsvoe sninistaos anol -bensdtunsite sd ise 
@tanol anowtea yiev sticpet ,sleies faitaso beeiet s gat 
“edt topandD of dthnette exel to xefore ,asdow 198i7 
> 04s taogqoe oF adit ud ,sedots satevensit es sviee dus 
ot mokeIogoNq ylno ak Atgnstts seotn ,tiuaev ent to atnomdte 
gut id souboig of etinsv fous 10% poet ea? To Jdnteow odd 
Jourse stifne ett ted? of fae , ti gneite Ssstg to aie 
‘etiovidows edt ,sotot bovieme1 bose tewod to tadd sve 
etnemtrayaos sit of motsiogo1g at sviessm resqqe teom 
at : Pod ancttou1itenco tetdsti tot yretta0o edt no -etivev 
ie ys: nm sis eedoqms shbte sat .socerk bas seantosil to tosltts 
wm be: det ed blwonta bas etinav bebsol yitdgil ni yrseesosn 

‘ylusliwta Sus atebtry itl Joe asdows sbie bas edia sa? 
te shedt .se.t (Volt .grt) a10% devise to amesd badeol 
-dabin sdt aadd dtgeb edt dtiw ylbirqet stom esearai0cnt 
1 edt wort tnetarkh taom gendkt eft tedto edd no ,dasd 
‘wot atiaes1 atdd nore .beaserte y{gnorsds Jeom 918 sixe 
Yo mtot ated? of sottefes nt tnemttspet sda enoess1 Lage 
| ‘th teat .ftbiw att besoxe blnodea ctgqeb avi teat ,aci 
"Ode sonbet of sldewolle eat ti efidn .mottod bas got ts Rnowe 
| sBnitfvav to show reblo sdt xT .atimt! seodsd nested noisoee 


«ft 


aa 


ee, 


at a > 


98 ‘ 

The definitive elements that settle the external appearance ' 
of the mediaeval vanlt are the ribs themselves before all else, 
their geometrical arrangement already considered, the proport- 
ions of their dimensions to those of the compartments, their | 
profiles, keystones, developments above their imposts, and 
lastly the decoration of the compartments. 

The treatment of the imposts will be considered in connecti- 
on with the forms of the supports and of their capitals, and ; 
we shall therefore her limit ourselves to what is to be said. 
of the vault itself. This has been sufficiently explained from 
esthetic and technical stand points» it only remains to state 
that the side arches, which in rooms containing free supports 
connect these together and wit: the walls, make strong archiv—- 
olts and smaller ribs necessary and gesirable for both techni- 
cal and esthetic reasons; if the side arches support heavy lo- 
ads like those of churches supporting the walls of the clears- 
‘tory, or those of warehouses},cellars, etc., that support goods, 
furniture, implements, men and other external loads, they must 
again be strengthened. Rooms containing several aisles and hay- 
ing a raised central aisle, require very strong longitudinal 
pier arches, arches of less strength to connect the supports 
and serve as transverse arches, but ribs to support the comp- 
artments of the vault, whose strength is only proportional to 
the weight of the vault. For such vaults to produce the impres- 
sion of great strength, and so that the entire structure may 
have that of power and reserved force, the archivolts and ribs 
must appear massive in proportion to the compartments of the 
vaults; on the contrary for lighter constructions to have the 
effect of lightness and grace, the side arches are entirely un- 
necessary in lightly loaded vaults and should be replaced bry ribs. 

The ribs and side arches act like girders and similarly to 
loaded beams of curved form (Fig. 167); i.e., their strength 
increases more rapidly with the depth than the width on one 
hand, on the other the fibres most distant from the neutral 
axis are most strongly stressed. from this results for struct- 
ural reasons the requirment in relation to their form of sect- 
ion, that its depth should exceed its width, that it should be 
strong at top and bottom, while it is allowable to reduce the 
section between those limits. Iin the older mode of vaulting, 


‘ 
¥ 


ee edt of tslsotbasatsg ete esaswoo Stataqse odd meow 
Qnetta 2 sved asdowe bas adit edd ,snsasrag000 
ate fotdu tentexe .(T3l .bf%) e6zbs teqqn atedd te 
ath edt of ytaeseoonnn et noittbbs edt tod pasner 
“ysvnoo esiors bas adita gnowte etoteieds ;onitivev to 
gicube1 to ytiiidteatmisg sat bone .,diyneite Yo sotere 
> to eeu edt exoll{s eobsttxe bas eobating aeented mort 
Beem @ ef nottonot ett efktint ecbattat edt sside egnshly 
eakedt jadi bebaol yftdptie 16 bebeolay to exe al .beuor 
skureteb od yam enotensmth ([snottroqotg ons amtot [anoid 
gre edt sone= .yntheol to enortibaoo edd mort ylénageb 
dit «2 tovedix odd atellit dtiw betdtcoeb sonsecis 
syne SintoD ot Rnkbrooos hetousdemoo ,(Car .2r7) 
ae fivadiz eaedT .insbivs Satbeol gdgtl sds este erat 
otegiatn mo esves{ to enot edd bees etedw dostie xntasely 
ii cote eeantbloom sidso .absed [fssg yd bstanooabd ere 
~foms f them dotdw mi edt yntveed anode to enottose sit 
ain yrev niddts hetotitaet sey sie slitre? yey een sistoeti 
od 6 e fntasnoqg teom etesgqe sols sybe yeKol ant seating! wo 
£h 2 te <[feguod haintog 10 bavot 2 af batassd neds 
‘64% nsdf dostis oftextens ston 2 ead Lfotwod betaios 
babe Tsqtade # 10 svOD «2 yd beosiqe: sd oale yem notdy 
Seod? yi amtot efqmie yrev seed? aoalget of wtqmedtie 
Oint Ifet of yeso of ef ti conte ,ticeer. tuodsin sxe xely 
dit otf to asfitor ont ak potseno asgs slbbta edT .enenels 
| yse [aantoetifote att ot sebtigosg eisdmsem yletem don 
¥ Sntishes to base atlusy beqofsveb sat of ynthbnoqesti0s 
it jxe dottix .ebmad bas ebeed [189q atin eantihisoa tes! 
. “bus jaisduem gnizesd en atiuavy edt of edit sdt to anoitalor 
b seaT .editt sav to anoitoea edt dtiw [lew ss itnomiad 
iO Seueced mrot ed sean of sects of efdanoses1 ylonrsoe 
itec to svitom [evyeaitbem sat .eslyte oress{o sd? of terle 
: abavot ofe1eqea of sonote auctosig~-inee diiw Jee abnsd 
‘to nottetocah edt af steizqorgge yrev osls et anollod 
© etedn ,ponatathS aldatebianoo £ neve te avitostts ef boa 
“g see yan etonttarbat emooed amo? 
— 8at yaa dient att of ssofo sd of bebsetnt atlaay nt ylnd: 
> aelleme ofnt bebivih ed bus bedotine 9d aknthlvor otarsgee 
Yenoisoee sit to tnomteerd blod # seed aids nt seve tey .et 


ie 
~ 
«ieage 


a 


rg | 


. 
Sem 


99 
when the separate courses are perpendicular to the axis op the 
compartment, the ribs and arches have a strengthening. addition 
at their upper edges (Fig. 167), against which abut the compart- 
ments; but this addition is unnecessary in the diagonal mode 
of vaulting; therefore strong ribs and arches convey the impr- 
ession of strength, and the permissibility of reducing the sec- 
tion between intrados and extrados allows the use of coved mo- 
uldings, white the intrados fulfils its function as a massive 
round. In case of unloaded or slightly loaded ribs, their sec- 
tional forms and proportional dimensions may be determined in- 
depently from the conditions of loading. Hence the German Ren- 
aissance decorated with fillets the ribs of a ribbed vault, 
(Pig. 169), constructed according to Gothic principles, and 
this makes the light loading evident. These ribs have a very 
pleasing effect where used; the rows of leaves on both sides 
are decorated by peakl beads, cable mouldings, etc. 

The sections of strong bearing ribs in which mediaeval arch- 
itecture was very fertile are yet restricted within very narr- 
ow limits; the lower edge alone appears most powerful and bold, 
when treated as a round or pointed bowtell; at a distance the 
pointed bowtell has a more energetic effect than the round, w 
which may also be replaced by a cove or a sharper edge; all a 
attempts to replace these very simple forms by those more com 
plex are without result, since it is so easy to fall into lit- 
tleness. The middle ages created in tne profiles of the ribs, 
not merely members peculiar to its architectural styles, but 
corresponding to the developed vaults and of enduring value; 
leaf mouldings with pearl beads and bands, which express the 
relations of the ribs to the vaults as bearing members, and 
harmonize well with the sections of the ribs. Therefore it is 
scarcely reasonable to refuse to use the form because origin- 
aliar to the classic styles. The mediaeval motive of using 
bands set with semi-precious stones to separate rounds and 
hollows is also very appropriate in the decoration of the ribs, 
and is effective at even a considerable distance, where other 
forms become indistinct. 

Only in vaults intended to be close to the observer may the 
separate mouldings be enriched and be divided into smaller par- 
ts, yet even in this case a told treatment of the section of 


OOL 


| aved sfenit eflan sit Sroqqua Jedd venoms ehie adT 
attib [ettneees ne aetl etd? nl .dtpmerte ee [fon 
eben stedd beead ef at no. bne ,edityelfane edd 
mee eee | etnemtseny av 

rid: sehene. yi bentuisteh eft eedo1s sbhie edt to dthesid esT 
3 to a 2 sit conta bns ,drogque yedd teadd ellew edd Yo 
67 ows edd ,oatt atedd atiw eeesetont oals eadote abie 
tae yltnstottivs od [fiw dtaneite bas ddbaerds to ata 
2b seoan 987009 to ehais [esaevee Yo Ilind sis yet 
op sdt nt aveysl edd? to eeendoids edt yd bentareideh 
hex > astdt 10 o#f to takenoo yianihtooos eadors sbis 
.amtbeo ol ett bas [fen edt to asemioidt edt ot gnthiooos estore 
es eqete tied to [Int of bokasiis sd yeo seedt bas 
By edt ted? notazesqat sat esonbotg dos shre snt teat of 
“aiedt sisi isl evad déynsite itedd bas noitom nwo tient to 
een aq to sbomu etettqo1gae teom One tesigqute edt .atoLrisins 
ent encitose snedt anigneris nt efetenoo eedots sbte sat gat 
tgvebeds brs tdgtf to nottsenvetis seodn ,“etebao" 19 agete 
moo aninshiwd sit of motdeles stedd iftostts teablod edd 
qllsotsesls edd yd tneobtve sham er etfesy edt to atuen 
eds YT (IVE .2tF) ete ll rt emoe attw eevee! to swor 
‘yd bsoslqsn sd yam asizns add ,mtot tedoix « oven of 
"Yo nofeasiqni ed anitviz ,awolfod ysented base & to aquorg 
4 mol oft nedtynetie of bertesh od ti th bos ,so10t ofsez1one 
4 | nt en Ifew ae ytifsenr ai dows ebte beqqste edt to bons 
it mb esogiteq aidt (rtint {[[ftw [iletwod betniog a ,eone 
ie Of teltmte enr0t doser sudd sw stubs9otg Lenotter 1S «yer 
> feebastR ati at acis slbhie edd yd beoubéttnt saodt 
it Batynoled asittory [ebom saedt aviv eanesqard seven aso sn 
Jouq is{imke to esaso at ssttutaso dt EL baa dt SE edt 
on doidn ,ednemenitess Ss10die sat [fe yrerdnoo sat np 
quotds sd binods ,eek2 slbbtm steal sdt ot set trovet 
mii etni ylisorieteid dgo0dt”.eeelatrow yiisoitostg anied 

« fa tod ,et(vav edt Jxoggua yino fom sefo1ws sbie edd gonke 
‘bas ,medd toontos emt? omse edt ta bos d18q8 eteiq sft qeex 
chiod ttedt ,redso done ddiw mottoennoo ot bsynetis ete 
xe dofdw enisiteg siif=basd svieoet yea esoative tSén0l 


Hdd beseenars sved enottean bos ehottsqg [fA .nottosanco aids 
eVEW mWO BIL nt doas ,aebi 


ee ie 


tan | 
sv ed - 


ae 


Ape a init 


st ees 0 deed ed eyanle [[tn dia edt ~ 


100 

the rib will always be best. 

The side arches that support the walls must have breadth as 
well as strength. In this lies an essential difference from 
the smaller ribs, and on it is based their different decorati- 
ve treatment. 

The breadth of the side arches is determined by the thickness 
of the walls that they support, and since the strength of the 
side arches also increases with their rise, the two requireme- 
nts of breadth and strength will be sufficiently satisfied if 
they are built of several rings of courses, whose depths are 
determined by the thickness of the layers in the quarry. The 
side arches accordingly consist of two or three courses of 
arches according to the thickness of the wall and the loading, 
and these may be arranged in full or half steps as required, 
so that the side arch produces the impression that the walls,. 
of their own motion and their strength have laid bare their 
interiors. The simplest and most appropriate mode of profil- 
ing the side arches consists in arranging these sections in s 
steps or “orders”, whose alternation of light and shade gives 
the boldest effect. their relation to the burdening compart- 
ments of the vaults is made evident by the elastically curved 
rows of leaves with some fillets (Fig. 171). If the profile is 
to have a richer form, the angles may be replaced by separate 
groups of a round betweey hollows, giving the impression of 
energetic force, and if it be desired to strengthen the lower 
end of the stepped side arch in reality as well as in appear- 
ance, a pointed bowtell will fulfil this purpose in the best 
way. By rational procedure we thus reach forms similar to 
those intraduced by the middle ages in its grandest churches; ; 
we can never dispense with these model profiles belonging to 
the 12 th and 13 th centuries in case of similar problems, but 
on the contrary all the albored refinements, which were such 
favorites in the late middle ages, should be thrown aside as 
being practically worthless, though historically interesting. 

Since the side arches not only support the vaults, but also 
keep the piers apart and at the same time connect them, and 
are arranged in connection with each other, their horizontal 
lower surfaces may receive band-like patterns which express \ 


this connection. All periods and nations have expressed this ° 
idea, each in its own way. 


eu bidseeaes ems etetq ssotw .emoor betinsv as[fame 
st ton ob vetiosy beddia yd beaevoo exe dokdin bae seo 
te dove ;absof [aveonn of heeoqxe enolan estos sbie sviaesm 
me to 9680 or adit websoid es detsert od [[on yrov yam esaors 
as ; -ylfeqtoniaq yodt sonte ,atinav bebeol yltdgil baa iis 
ey edt to atnanteaqmos edt tot asostise [law sdt no etiremtude 
fedt of ,fots obte s to enottiog od neodd [lin bnew edi{o 
sob ys din s to tedt wort bentstio sd ysm enoitosa x 
> yltoetieg madd et #T .(SUL .Bit)dtbiw etc ontvied 
EO Svitei009) to tseqeedo bas taslqutea efi to eno oela ef 
jor ySi asdors obie baer edit edt to aelzas edt sosiye1 of Biae 
: de bne fdatl te toette sft sesetoni of ,Bavoo 10 axel 
- ys ,~asdowe yd bstoennoo ote snmoloo th seeeo teom nt 
malo oft sit{ nedors sacdt heteott eved etostidors sonsartanch 
neve .nottoottenco msed esnote of antbnogqee1i1¢co evaeitidots ofe 
fore seed? to asortiva Yobno edt at ersttoo znrarot 
) Sivst 6 bettinmoo rsitie sved aitetesm sonseaisned be samo 
obi 0 10 senote to amaed hevaso editf{ eedors sdf aniteserd af 
2 ont ote tlovidors ed? to mtot sdt to Sninaen adt to ee 
itn ) | efoeTI09 sd deom yodt bre 
) B Svoda masd snote sritiogque A as mI0OT sveidifota sol 
eeerersmtetett ati ,siutostidows msfos1) of rstivosq earn shan 
e081 -gebao eft to notteto095 add .esatuveo [adnosiinod L[ersvse 
7 mite oo.eds tedt sebi od? bsersetgxs ,enrstieq siti~-bnad yd 
ae pg dotda so ,bned bedoterte ylidgit s yd betoannoo sd bine 
Nios: ea obned of Jib Gnitenso toodtin Biel ed tagia 
vet exot evaistdors atdt fevolqms eevisenent etesi1D add tug 
\ & 18 Se tr born neve bne .etc0d bas ewobntw seolons 
m semcosd stoteiedt ti bas ,ansdtA at foubeups sat te 
Mdiw Hetoennom sroced eved esehi to enotisiooses asfito 10 
te erotesm sonenetsnef bas namod edd saeo eid? at ;amnod oe 
dvotstin eqedteq .siessD sive to amtot sat hetqesoss yf 
[qooq tad? yd amrot eaedd dtin Satetooees sashr edt gosh 
5 aed eved gx dotdey ssodt mort betettrb evan of mace yout 
| esvertidore edt dtin fosmnoo of Senot 
ae [Ian 8 mt Snineqo as Sevreoncoe aslyte oreeato oat | 
aie tod s yd [Law eat to ytnoesm ent mort betsisqee .elod « 
‘to y Batneqo wa Bt tr debrsast eohe efbdtm eds tod ,amer? 
8 vers .8qgste bseasos1 19 manren efqmta ati qd. wonanenade ods 


ae 


, 


iA ’ A Am A 
a i 
a 
Ne 


—) Oa : : : 
wa Os Cte A Ny or 
ee ee 


; 


101 

Smaller vaulted rooms, whose piers are connected by side ar- 
ches and which are coveeed by ribbed vaults, do not require 7 
massive side arches unless exposed to unusual loads; such side 
arches may very well be treated as broader ribs in case of sm- 
all and lightly loaded vaults, since they principally act as 
abutmerts on the wall surfaces for the compartments of the va- 
ults and will then be portions of a side arch, so that the oth- 
er sections may be obtained from that of a rib by doubling or 
halving its width.(Fig. 172). It is then perfectly correct and 


‘igs also one of the simplest and cheapest of decorative expedi- 


ents to replace the angles of the rits and side arches by chan- 
fers or coves, to increase the effect of light and shadow. 

In most cases if columns are connected by arches, Roman and 
Renaissance architects have treated these arches like the :clas- 
sic architrave corresponding to stone beam construction, even 
forming coffers in the under surfaces of these archivolts. The 
Roman and Renaissance masters have either committed a fault 
in treating the arches like curved beams of stone, or our ide- 
as of the meaning of the form of the archivolt are incorrect, 
and they must be correct. 

The architrave form as a supporting stone beam above a colon- 
nade was peculiar to Grecian architecture, its division into 
several horizontal courses, the decoration of its under surface 
by band-like patterns, expressed the idea that the columns sh- 
ould be connected by a tightly stretched band,.on which a load 
might be laid without causing it to bend. . 

But the Greeks themselves employed this architrave form to 
enclose windows and doors, and even used it as ar archivoite 
at the aqueduct in Athens, and it therefore becomes untrue, 
or othe associations of ideas have become connected with the- 
se forms; in this case the Roman and Renaissance masters simp- 


ly accepted the forms of the Creeks, perhaps without understan- 


ding the ideas associated with these forms by that people. But 
they seem to have differed from those which we have been accus- 
tomed to connect with the architrave. 

The classic styles conceived an opening in a wall as merely 
a hole, separated from the masonry of the wall by a bordering 
frame, but the middle ages regarded it is air opening producing 
the appearance by its simple splays or recessed steps, as if 


& 
i 


(= «Ove ih " *F, ov f yd, 
* van © yr 4 ie iy 
ot) ry rin 


cae ts Pi eae 

} bath ered antyel ,bro008 ake att Yo bensgo bed [isn odd 
12% ton 918 eomatt sairsbied gadt Jnebive Ilea ak 3 
qqne sdf dtsened beynet1e ste dod ,elfen favesibem neve 
fe [eintootts edt ,t%8q teftdo eft yelq soitw esdove sbte 
fi 973 adt to ton ef noktoursenoo odd tk seve Bnttentmobery 
‘eqtontty tedto nt bre ewobatw feedu at es ,sonedtojmt 
‘Ylno ton et svsetidote msmof-ooe1D edT .eitow svidet 
sat yfferensy stow at tod ,enmeloo edt Baitoennos 
gloo edt aeeuted esoeqetednt asqo sdf eetaiysges dordw ,ted 
. t {fer eat to yrnorem afd ,sotntoo bas seeitt edt mot 

em edd moat [lew sat nk 3ntnsqo eat One ,eointeo too7 
7 Bi t bas ~aseoding tmersttib wt One eysw tasisttiS ak atoe 
oF no tionudesoo to wotaye edt no bneqsh sroteieds Ife aaiae 
yo 8d bipow avettoo otmt sostrne tebna edi ebivib of .bayol 
stups1 tivev fennet ait yfno: -somsoitingie ett of bee 
ROn syersidows edt yedtien Jud ,ersttoo yd banstagrl 
tdw \fmenento eet of betgebs ef soetine 19sheG ati tlove 
® erstioo ent tud ,tioquwe to etntog sit ot Ti atoennco 
| Slovidore sdT .etlusv [ennvt [en358 x01 eiatrqorgge 
bent dttw flex yrev eetiny sfqtonitg memof-ooex) ead a0 
pnt et sig sdf to tnenqoleveb sit es grol oe ,tlesv Lev 
astg edt tr ,.s.f ,olygtonfiq ofeesf{o sat dtiv soneb 
§O8 ,eBetove Sas To etacyat odd 10. etnemtods otaiegoe 
‘edd Yr yrertnoo say a0 .beqofeved yfeeitt ed yam ote 
Pins Josetatat asdove ebia bas edia sdd tedd Hentot of ete 
eqoleveh ed tonnes tfovidois sdt ,ebas 1isdd ta stersensg1e 
o ent emooed atshg sdt ,dnstxe orttns ett tuotgnordt 
yitore oft dae ,bortsg [aveetben tesd edt ni as axsia 
¢ of sldersterg ef tt bas ,eonsottingte ati teol seas 
eset q Isvesthsa ftin somabrooos nit esdow shite bae adits 
Iftw .sencts feoqnt Sne ,fetiqe> .tery ett to tnemtasrt AT 
fe sw bane ,etnroy esesit of navte. of Ytingt10990 nA en brotts 
. S nt beyolque sedone eviseem sat to taetd of sved [Li 
(fede ew [Lids rengiaeb [sotndost wefiete bas atSudaty 
stq to nottoaanoo sat anivsbireaco af enoitouttenco easss to 
) edt no ,Susd sno no asiors bas eotsteldatns yd enaufoo bas 
‘br. s .atlusy fennat to seso nt es seedt rot sutt et omen Bad 75 
aft ‘ataptoeniate no & mobtagtsasvat taco to etiuest sdt yldusd 
Lv a  eretgqet) seodt of wSster ated tepu of 


ag Jf 
es 
4 Kas iri, 


ir er fas, 
alee ty it ere eS ape ee eS Sper ; 
ys A 4 ‘? : 5 : "v2 } 


102 

the wall had opened of its own accord, laying bare its interior. 
it is self evident that bordering frames are not wanting in e 
even mediaeval walls, but are arranged beneath the supporting 
side arches which play the chief part, the structural elements 
predominating even if the construction is not of the greatest 
importance, as in wheel windows and in other principally deco- 
rative works. The Greco-Roman architrave is not only the band 


connecting the columns, but is more generally the dividing men- 


ber, which separates the open interspaces between the columns 
from the frieze and cornice, the masonry of the wall from the 
roof cornice, and the opening in the wall from the masonry; it 
acts in different ways and for different purposes, and its me- 
aning will therefore depend on the system of construction emp- 
loyed. To divide its under surface into coffers would be oppo- 
sed to its significance. only the tunnel vault requires to be 
lightened by coffers, but neither the architrave nor the arch- 
ivolt; its under surface is adapted to free ornament, which c 
connects it to the points of support, but the coffers are only 
appropriate for actual tunnel vaults. The archivolt constructed 
on the Greco-Roman principle unites very well with the mediae- 
val vault, so long as the development of the pier is in accor- 
dance with the classic principle, i.e., if the pier affords 
separate abutments for the imposts of the arches, so that each 
arch may be freely developed. On the contrary if the imposts 
are so formed that the ribs and side arches intersect and int- 
erpenetrate at their ends, the archivolt cannot be developed 
throughout its entire extent, the piers become true clustered 
piers as in the best mediaeval period, and the archivolt has 
then lost its significance, and it is preferable to treat the 
ribs and side arches iir accordance with mediaeval principles. 

The treatment of the ‘pier, capital, and impost stones, will 
afford us an opportunity to return to these points, and we st- 
ill have to treat of the massive arches employed in bridges, 
viaducts and similar technical designs; still we shall speak 
of these constructions in considering the connection of piers 
and columns by entablatures and arches on one hand, on the oth- 
er the same is true for these as in case of tunnel vaults, and 
partly the results of our investigation s on openings in walls. 
We must here refer to those Chapters. 


" a I slates Ase hon) nomsboen én aaved Ivey Desdha.” 
an sadn fotdw aot bas jenouse [atatonite tot senoseysa ot 
<idhil sis adtfvev edt Yk jsutt ef bise ylenotverg 
Oe I POd~(eenodaysd “ods yO danehtod yltssessoenas ed son 
0% iganod 9¢ teom adit Lanogeth add ,dtgnsits tees siivp 
‘tedt betos1e of yam dors betatog 5 es ,seddte ynttostory 
P1oqque snosteyed oaT .xoqs ett ts beol Istoeqe s ae 
yl fsottetretosi1sd9 bos ylatetaqgorgqs teom ar adit 
i sft bas gevasl to braless « ,tenolt Sebnsqene & yd 
bene ,sote ,ebsed ,ebletda ,enottatnorsiga1 [sort03e! 
s4d de eodore edt to dtheetd teaotasts oft of Bnogest109 yan 
aah te Pit ay: eRi%) SE antshetede sdt1 sit stedw tniog 
‘9 ett 10 ,atetisbhbnetio bmeqeue ot svisa esnoteyai sds TI 
a q od tenm yout ,wedt davord? seny seqgor blottese 
» Isttneo sat basore bagnevie sd teom enoktetoosh vieds 
$ botetod: ‘od of ets j.ote yalstrstam aotbitnud .alfad tt 
| .ettosasov to slotio « to wot sdt sie? tenm yort ,medt 
3 fig sdt ditw sonesbtocos at hetseit 9d team soitaiooab 
Hie «© ©. etemob Yo eenoteysd to 3nitsstt nb bedatiisses 
BS to ebntd Lateves bavot ete etinev Istnomento nl 
Maqtontzy sd? ner ot antbioc0s t9dso dose of besentbtodue 
;ono tod esd eqedtsg tlesv doses dotdw to ,ssnotayed 
.ebsed nemod ,2eiutqivoe wy betetoxeb 9d yidreeog 
‘ - pfodays ,ebfeide .eeitqinoe yt asnodeyot icitstat 
Ko M -seuaapenieateietal dsasot bas btidt sit Yo ezodt oft 
Be? x -@tnsnenio Ttesl 
pewtionoe sonsraransh oat brs 2838 efhdim eat A039 
7 belfao-o8 edt ,emtot Ssbaeqene sviesem es esnoteyad 
sd tauom allen edt bk stetigoigys yllatoeges ote tedt 
asm od ,.9.f yo std of yvaed meee teom yadt aedn ,bobsol 
)madw yatsifodaaio avieoe: of bebmetat nein to , betas? ylov 
‘xG.etet{ebnado tebnegeus [vtsoeiz to mrot edt evad yew yodd 
eq to sen add ..8.i .nortositid add nt encttatsyye 
 auodss asdx 920. trodt timieg boelataewente yistam aseoqieg 
me f af? to arc11e ynan oft to sno af ,tevetada Goinsen (ne 
ks ibd ’ .efdsnottostdo berebtanos ed feuws bas ess olbbim 
o> oft to seostina edt to tnemtsert svttatoosb add wt as 
pe tet of vino modt wsbiesco of sved testt ow atneadze 
off .olfdteatv et nottonisenoo tisdt bas beistealy ton sie 


emia Ne tie ti a x 


103 

Ribbed vaults as well as domes and Roman groin vaults requi- 
re keystones for structural reasons, and for which what was p 
previously said is true; if the vaults are light, they need n ’ 
not be unnecessarily burdened by the keystones, but if the re- 
quire great strength, the diagonal ribs must be constructed as 
projecting arches, as a pointed arch may be erected that requi- 
res a special load at its apex. The keystone supported by the ; 
ribs is most appropriately and characteristically decorated 
by a suspended flower, a garland of leaves and flowers, by al- 
legorical representations, shields, heads, etc., and its width 
may correspond to the greatest breadth of the arches at the 
point where the ribs abut agains: it (Fig. 173). 

If the keystones serve to suspend chandeliers, or if bell or 
scaffold ropes pass through them, they must be perforated, and 
their decorations must be arranged around the central opening; 
if bells, building materials, etc., are to be hoisted through 
them, they must take the form of a circle of voussoirs, whose 
decoration must be treated in accordance with the principles 
established in treating of keystones of domes. 

Tr ornamental vaults are found several kinds of keystones, 
subordinated to each other according to rank. The principal 
keystones, of which each vault perhaps has but one, should 
possibly be decorated by sculptures, human heads, etc., the 
inferior keystones by sculptures, Shields, symbols, etc., wh- 
ile those of the third and fourth rank receive rosettes and 
leaf ornaments. 

Both the middle ages and the Renaissance sometimes treated 
keystones as massive suspended forms, the so-called pendants, 
that are especially appropriate id the walls must be heavily 
loaded, s#ken they must seem heavy to the eye, i.e., be massi- 
vely treated, or when intended to receive chandeliers, when 
they may have the form of graceful suspended chandeliers.Ex- 
aggerations in this direction, i.e., the use of pendants for 
purposes merely ornamentaland permit their use when without 
any meaning whatever, is one of the many errors of the later 
middle ages and must be considered objectionable. 7 

As for the decorative treatment of the surfaces of the comp- 
artments, we first have to consider them only so far as then 
are not plastered and their construction is visible. The earlier 


ee 


ip. Sey i oa si = ia 


e oF ois ar) ay. bor . 
pv to SD uskgekenic! act: patonttenco events teonle ene olbbis 
ee enseents {ecesno dtiw samtdemoa ,snote tuo to etl 
£ edt tartaet of mavé nokttbaoo ak e1sn etluev eviacsn edd 
nda [pttowoq ylantbnogesri09 beatings: tod ,e1rt 8 to asi 
Dh eaten nioyttvitos tae, sft .2saseittod gatylt bee 
py Yo. hom bigest s bebneseb astintass at €f bee dt SI and 
qxe satel a antdmameh anti forv sat ,egntblind snitou 
edd of brag esn nortnetts on eoneh .ysnom bas sais to 
6 Ber tI .atinev odd to adasmtisgmoo edt to tnemtse1t ovi 
pe etex dotdx ,aenote stersqgse edt e1agesg of 1odel some 
goneteth eldaisbienor s ts beosig yitsido sin bas syrel 
‘eno! gen aaidion 10 olstil dedt on .1evisedo add to ays sad 
et tH to: sdnone ls stereqoe sit to tnemtsent oftetites Latooqe & 
to )® .~nottaoexs ofei000e bas asentes .t#09 tear te tluev 
Wit Yo gocetiwe sds no shade bas ti3rl to ysl teelo toy bak 
‘4 edt bee tnemegnetze thedt mort dtod betives: tivev 
{lite Ohne ~- e9ne efbbim orttne sit 3niisb 3ninisae: ,nalg 
lostte antesoly s tot etnemstiupet Leqtont1q edd -- antamet 
? bnod oft yd benetdhied retitant esw foidu ,ativav odd 
8s. Sseuie edd bar sostuse e{iiaiv edt to etotxed eft gd tae 
By oat aiot 
— ytod esnote tuo ese acbiee nolttosaternes bstisuevy nebo 
a eft :aticav to atmendraqmoo edt aniflit 10% dowd yf 
bas teb20c & to nottamiot dé nt tetenoo eamotss1oceb Ler 
Br gate trey edt eifsteres stom sd? .,2ebnod svitaitooeb to ean ond 
pedine cation tostts sft sd [lin 3ateselq stom adt ,betooexe ei 
90 gg@ ne sved yinogss doind to etnto,, sdtf-ofsesom oad 
+ ons nt gzolsns me bone ,soiiwdst s{tixet to tant of beilis 
Ny t bos bododente of tslimte ,seatis endt atiosy to toon 
— onqe: Ife conta ,eotidst ofttxet of Ome ,estitasqet bsdasqeoe 
eti yd dtod ,2tod tnot edd elleoet yisosem antrolons 
egeue eis" dotde ,soataue [entetxzs ati yo fae Snod fe1 
een bas Onitw . tage! wort moitostorg sot aselltq nsond 
Oe \? -28ys evitieinont bos esefmens [anietxe tente 
: r fet? eetinev Asteteiol> .3 
| sbesate ywaetls ton hdeiee astdatofo to bise ed yea fosm tai 
> setavao2 edt ere yodd jatioav to noteauoeth gakbsoe1g edd nt 
bk 1) fotsoertedat 643 yd beoshorg dasodt sensosd ativev niorz to 
epee ers Jed? benteter oe t6 atusq ssodt [le ,etivav [annus lo 


et 
~t 
Bi he 


7 


Bs Li . J 4 
Penn” Da, & ao 


104 
middle ages almost always constructed the compartments of vau- 
lts of cut stone, sometimes with unasual dimensions, so that 
the massive vaults were in condition 6ven to resist the injur- 
ies of a fire, but required correspondingly powerful abutments 
and flying buttresses. The great activity in building during 
the 12 th and 13 th centuries demanded a rapid mode of :constr- 
ucting buildings, the vaulting demanding a large expenditure 
of time and money. Hence no attention was paid to the decorat-— 
ive treatment of the compartments of the vaults. It was a toil- 
smoe labor to prepare the separate stones, which were not very 
large and were chiefly placed at a considerable distance from 
the eye of the observer, so that little or nothing was done in 
a special esthetic treatment of the separate elements of the 
vault at great cost. Neatness and accorate execttion, a soft 
and yet clear play of light and shade on the surfaces of the 
vault resulted both from their arrangement and the general 
plan, remaining during the entire middle ages -- and still 
remains -- the principal requirements for a pleasing effect of 
the vaults, which was furttler heightened by the bond employed, 
and by the texture of the visible surface and the lines of its 
joints. 

Modern vaulted construction seldom uses cut stone but common- 
ly brick for filling the compartments of vaults; the most nat- 
ural decorations consist in the formation of a border and in 
the use of decorative bonds, the more carefully the vaulting 
is executed, the more pleasing will be the effect obtained; t 
the moasaic-like joints of brick masonry have an appearance 
allied to that of textile fabrics, and an analogy in the treat- 
ment of vautts thus arises, similar to stretched and freely s 
suspended tapestries, and to textile fabrics, since all space 
enclosing masonry recalls the tent roofs, both by its structu- 
ral bond and by its external surface, ahich were suspended be- 
tween pillars for protection from light, wind and weather, ag- 
ainst external enemies and inquisitive eyes. 

¢. Cloistered vaults. 

Not much may be said of cloister vaults not already stated 
in the preceding discussion of vaults; they are the converse 
of groin vaults because though produced by the intersection 
of tunnel vaults, all those parts are retained that are omit4 ed 


it baod sdt notdoentstnt Yo satl edt tA .atfusv atots af 
snote sisiaqee tedt of ,edit antvedtuaeise Bnoite awi0t 
, aemod mi as Sertepe1 at snoteysd & ,yIssesosnne ere 
teexrt soee edt besa einsatiaegroo ead .etlyav mio 
=e chaatelees no ativev aeteiol{o ons ,atiosy tnemtisqu05 
bh . ss1t svitetooab segoiw ,genod oF m10t ni ateaixorg 
| ‘ | -wolfol oale 
eating) sonaestene .o 
edit cotuen etinenth ton bib sonseaetsnal edt nant 
ee yi betmemanto yflsueu oedt aticaev [aveatbem 
t etfuev tasmtrsqmoo wol beyolyms yflexsas2 ti .d10% 
 0Bi3) tlosv bentow dels! beliso-oa edt atin noit 
istoosb Sne anitinie, 10% essostaine sytel betotto ouls 
bebednsy qitsom een dotdw .etinev tnsmtteqmoo dow? 
i to exon ets , (cL .2iT) eertaso atedt brswot eolgne 
anotdantdncs ni stf{uev astatolo dae seemed to snotteott 
Otedt yf Setsioosh ed yen bas etluev [enaus Yo anotsiaagg 
J x TO .attre0 add? to sonentuitg 1ste9%2 s ,ersbted to no 
a tons of SIuay to w1ot sno gort soldieneat oft anid 
‘seeis ;abnotd avitsicosh to seq sdt dtinw sonabto 
tie esel eved dofdw .,edis nttoetosq yd beonhots “sd 
sebilaibaaa enotdosetefat ssotn ,ee0q1uq eviteioosbh. # ne 
f Yo etluev dnemsisquoo sat .ebnti [fe to asaoseyed. yd 
1 yodt astisl!t sat ,abeol yvaed tot sldettue ees! sdt ove 
+ bas nottapdtanco [nts1a> teow yd Seétttent ylno sie oe 
8 90: i ,bersteslgno Satatemes mob{[se .1et vom tasd edt Yo sap 
qoyd nptéereceb ot wety #@ dtin begnette ylleqgionirg 
. | . eoooute 
atinayv nat hebbe ed yan atlony soneeeteneh edd of 
edt at beonbortat bis .edfosv mtory Istmemertos nos? | 
‘om ste yedd nottonatanoo aft dkeodt ,slyta ofdtad sie! 
oD e'nimanyorS )setluev eonecetaned bne nemoh of fasl ie 
8 as{oans Yo enottentdaoo yltoiite: ere godt .(sidélano 
(yeu enotioee seodn ,motistor to eetbot e1oteredt? one bre 
it esoeqetetar eft tsd? boynaiis ce ,setriedto to 1also1i9 
etievnk yi bef{it tedtie eis esaed reqqo tksdd mesnted seize 
NTE gts) etivav hetntog yi vitesl 1 ,semob [sdnemzse’ ,2s00b 
fant ticev edt Yo avther edt ae noxed od IsnozRth Bed ead ti 
otfoss [anogath sit ,esioiqoe aesnded sonateth tea sd? Yo bee 


105 
in groin vaults. At the line of intersection the bond itself 
forms strong strengthening ribs, so that separate stone ribs 
are unnecessary, a keystone is required as in domes and ribbed 
groin vaults, the compartments need the sace treatment as in 
compartment vaults, and cloister vaults on polygonal plans ap- 
proximate in form te domes, whose decorative treatment they 
also follow. 
c. Renaissance Vaults. 

Nhen the Renaissance did not directly employ the Roman or 
mediaeval vaults then usually ornamented by painting.or stucco 
work, it generally employed low compartment vaults in combina- 
tion with the so-called Welsh groined vault (fig. 174), ahich 
also offered large surfaces for painting and decoration in relief. 

Such compartment vaults, which were mostly vaulted from their 
angles toward their centres (Fig. 175), are more or less modi- 
fications of domes and cloister vaults in combinations aithap- 
portions of tunnel vaults and may be decorated by the formati- 
on of borders, a greater priminence of the ceirtre, or by accen- 
ting the transition from one form of vault to another, in acc- 
ordance with the use of decorative bonds; these accentings*may 
be produced by projecting ribs, which have less structural th- 
an a decorative purpose, whose intersections may be enriched 
by keystones of all kinds. The compartment vaults of this kind 
are the less suitable for heavy loads, the flatter they are, 
and are only justifted by most careful consthaction and the 
use of the best mortar, seldom remaining unplastered, but are 
principally arranged with a view to decoration by painting and 
stucco. 

To the Renaissance vaults may be added fan vaults derived f 
from ornamental groin vaults, and introduced in the English 
late Cothic style, though in construction they are more nearly 
allied to Roman and Renaissance vaults. (Breymann’s Constructi- 
onsleéhre). They are strictly combinations of annular surfaces 
and are therefore bodies of rotation, whose sections may be 
circular or otherwise, so arranged that the interspaces that 
exist between their upper bases are either filled by inverted 
domes, segmental domes, or lastly by pointed vaults (Fig. 177); 
if the half diggonal be taken as the radius of the vault inst- 
ead of the half distance between supports, the diagonal sections 


dice oid bas. yes ionto ed fiir yes eat to 
3 viieradeh als eas we sovol enwo1o dtiw asdota be 
Dick Aieiarits eeedt mott bre ,mege tiled bee Lenogerh 
at ates xevaoo to entf notfosatetat gntaesqqacib 
io 30 tnentisqmoo doses ;(SVL .af7) tiusv sdt to xeqe ent 
f motdiog sisuoe « nelg of at ttoqque sno Yd anted Ji 
“a ya Saedt bus ,nottose wslworko to sostie tAlonna a8 
od aqek yns antvesl tuodsiw sedsb done niot yisscfs 
. bitjatretosiedo ytev Raidiomoe oved atfovev get sesanT 
atfot yosel sdt I[fsoer ylSiviv bas eorsiseqae [entsdxe 
it bas ,aebte [favno btanteo gatbhsetge yiototian ala nat 
© sen8l (ednosixod ett gnitneoce yd bedsiosed sd ayents teur 
mtanoo! snot] sit Yo seni [stnostiod odt Asin somabi0008 
b edt nate batosnnom ste sevitom svitaroosh aniseasty yrelv 
is oo edt meantod aepsgetstat edd garllit tot been ,esoetise 
$ yah nests edt Snes (nelq nt relwotto ,atlusy odt to etaam 
ae yaifgosy 8 of abssl asanitoos fanoksth reluotiotase 
i ,atizev net at YISRAsOSnTOe 18 aenoth esnotayed ant to 
anos: based teite edt no <wedd atin Sneasesgsash nt yfteor 
~ne to esines e to tetenco dotdu .sfdiesoq os onots at ence 
ate be fIet puted eoonqgatsint eas .redte30% betosnnos asia ext! 
hei ; spa ofbbim sit Yo etfusv mst fet{aakh sat .onote to edele 
nen at | -S[qtontiq [savtonste atdd ao beced ylinasned 
» COUTITHD DMIAAST BTRONTZ .D 
hey sentofod I 
oe eenoltarshienoo [etens) .a 
wentoy # bodosst oved sw enotessoeth 100 Yo semsoo edt nt 
bt 2 anon no eno ,notinet#s a90 toattis yignoite Jagu dorin 
eee 100 Yo eeenbnooe sds abnsyeh eesf 30 ston aot 
pine enctten [fe to yonat ottettrie oct betesd aan dodne 
) to tnemtesxd ont .se1g9h dgid ylisr{ooeg a mi ehotreg 
“08 tio bas sowbottnt tonmso si .aeeed dns alatiqes ttedd 
i te yterktne ttedt nt enmploo to etabto ait {ls sotmexs 
ff et maliorg tao ,Ssooborq tJasg edt To ealyta’ Letetoot tio 
pdadt .xetv to dntoy Stisv yLlersns2 tent rot dees of ylno 
4 © «tebe temmufoo edt to tnemtss1d wot sad of an desl 
je1? bar beol sdf avisos1 of etaoqque berispes ezmiltes sal | 
‘edt ‘enottebavot bifere edt of etgenesg: Steemaob eff ist 
y One anmoloo oat es ifex en ,enottitasg, ead bas eallew len 


for 


aa 
* 


106 
of the vault will be circles, and the right sections are point- 
ed arches with crowns lover by the difference between the half 
diagonal and half span, and from these a sharp and gradually 
disappearing intersection line of convex curvature rises to t 
the apex of the vanlt (Fig. 178); each compartment of the vau- 
lt borne by one support is in plan a square portion cut from 
an annular surface of circular section, and these surfaces 
closely join each other without leaving any gaps between them. 

These fan vaults have something very characteristic in their 
external appearance and vividly recall the leady foliage of the 
fan palm uniformly spreading outward on all sides, and they m 
must always be decorated by accenting the horizontal lines in 
accordance with the horizontal lines of the stone construction. 
Very pleasing decorative motives are connected with the domical 
surfaces, used for filling the interspaces between the compart- 
ments of the vaults, circular in plan, and the arrangement of 
semicircular diagonal sections leads to a peculiar treatment 
of the keystone. Arches aresunnecessary in fan vaults, being 
mostly in disagreement with them; on the other hand construct- 
ions in stone are possible, which consist of a series of fan- 
like ribs connected together, the interspaces being filled with 
slabs of stone. The English fan vaults of the middle ages are 
generally based on this structural principle. , 

C. SUPPORTS BEARING CEILINGS. 
I. Columns. 
ae Ceneral considerations. 

Tn the course of our discussions we have reached a point, 
which must strongly attract our attention, one on whose solut- 
ion more or less depends the soundness of our teachings, and 
ahich has busied the artistic fancy of all nations and of all 
periods in a peculiarly high degree, the treatment of columns, 
their capitals and bases. We cannot introduce and critically 
examine all the orders of columns in their entirety, that the 
architectural styles of the past produced, owr problem is here 
only to seek for that generally valid point of view, that may 
lead us to the form treatment of the columnar order. 

The ceilings required supports to receive the load and trans- 
fer its downward pressure to the solid foundations. the exter- 
nal walls and the partitions, as well as the columns and piers, 


Aho 4 


Yor 
 Ylev s1s97q8 ayanls aol sd? .attoqque doue es soe 
on to sebt sit bas .ettogqus odd atin moettaqmoo ni wilos 
edt evyisost of jilnd to Sadt dtin betetooses ayewle et 
edt agisines of Sntersf{q bas staksqgoigqs Atod ei Ii 
“fioqqos wuitt s eved taum bsol oft petroqqee sad to 
R .noftsbnsot sdf to sets suis! & tevo betodiwetb 
neo afatiqess x extretosisdo eslyte Letplsosdido 
J qi ylfereass bua ,beol sdf gnivisoss atioggoe 
} .eratonatedue mri? ed? of stueeety sdt 2nititwaansert 
nwond edt antlilit{et yfno son etedmem statbenes 
sadIogqua sit to sinden sid ZnisfissJosisds cals Jad ,a9809 
| ‘ipa bne elatiqao tredt .aangloo bnaor to seso al 
t pea wsloo1ts edt synsdo of as of amtot nottienart yf 
ip. ods idtniiq edt bos ecosde edt to aio} sisupe eds 
is? mort bre ,amtot gattimt! to eynthae baxit yinosaoo 
swss0 fups% at notdontterb 8 attoqque sft to nottieoy fe 
dvd ooaqe Yo-nsebt 3nted 28 ,fdsened sit bre ovodA edd 
dd betegmoo eved enotten [fs sirotessdT .asulav leup 
| setk of sead edt bus mot nemud oft to baed dt of 
pees 'o? to bas teqqn edt to anottone’? gnrretiibn edt 
tts. ,.b8of a to the Oot nk FO9LI0 sat attoqque dor 
fs gnizro? <snotenanth bas mrot efi ot bestue soely gntsesr 
ylisefo easel to stom sien ,tsx09qn0e att of noktianr 
nt bavot ew se ,anorisn fnetettih yd beeesigxe Oae 
anit¢soqgqgua to sebi.edd sonte .emto4 anisimii oo 
ont booslq aomitomon af ,bano1g edd wort FE Bataoasad 
ist to inte mebind e antvisce: to Jent eemifemoa ,fnn0712 
jt Yo Bataxor edd Yo sebr eit nemttence ylteal  haolk ods 
Sidnoggeetedts tov kaewrsnol edd ,detsie ydaerls BA .5n9 109 
i eba teoqj0e8 “dt Bi ve pile Ja Hostrstoereno ton veHtre 
Edeu # sit. bemtot sex ti to ,sliq 8 eXil dtase sad nt 
‘co Iemtne ne to mot edt eiti betsett neve 10 ,taeg # 
sisw esvisensdt etroqiaee edt to9 .otnfoo edt boote dowd 
wif ooeh stew bas ,etadmem [etefoorte anikbletyny es bab 
qang fantgtro ttedt to yromwem ni -eeqitte [sottrev [el laiaq 
Siew [ods (Poet snot tdyil 2 troqque of yniviee yleren to ses 
4 Besta, eeottiesgas itiw bavor yoted 16 hetnessiqge: eavtianoe 
+e notiamrot sid ot hreget of weiv to etntog Latensy seeqT 
oe tod ,eomtd fesq ni yatdivs seodt yfno ton sien atroqgee 


107 
act as such supports. The load always appears very massive and 
bulky in comparison with the supports, and the idea of weight 
is always associated with that of bulk; to receive these masses, 
it is both appropriate and pleasing to enlarge the upper ends 
of the supports; the load must have a firm support and must be 
distributed over a large area of the foundation. Hence all ar- 
chitectlural styles characterize by capitals the end of the s 
supports receiving the load, and generally by bases the end 
transmitting the pressure to the firm substructure, these in- 
termediate members not only fulfilling the known material pur- 
poses, but also characterizing the nature of the supports. 

In case of round columns, their capitals and bases are chief- 
ly transition forms so as to change the circular support into 
the square forms of the abacus and the plinth; they are very 
commonly fixed endings of limiting forms, and from the vertic- 
al position of the supports a distinction is required between 
the Above and the Beneath, as being ideas-.of space having une- 
qual values. Therefore all nations have compared the capital 
to the head of the human form, and the base to its feet. 

The differing functions of the upper end of the support, wh- 
ich supports the object in the air or a load, affording it a 
resting place suited to its form and dimensions, forming a tr- 
ansition to the support, were more or less clearly understood 
and expressed by different nations, as we found in the Chapter 
on Limiting Forms, since the idea of supporting something, of 
detaching it from the ground, is sometimes placed in the fore- 
ground, sometimes that of receiving a burden aiid of resisting 
the load, lastly sometimes the idea of the crowning of the up- 
per end. As already stated, the lower end of the support was 
either not characterized at all, ar if tne suopportiaas stocke 
in the earth like a pile, or it was formed like a cushion or 
a seat, or even treated like the form of an animal on whose 
back stood the column. But the supports themselves were regar- 
ded as unyielding structural members, and were decorated by 
parallel vertical stripes. in memory of their original purpose, 
that of merely serving to support a light tent foof, they were 
sometimes represented ar being wound witr tapestries. 

These general points of view in regard to the formation of 
supports were not only those guiding in past times, but are so 


emer 


or 
yon ffi9e .entt orate? [fs x0? miener of [ftw bos , [lite 
fas ,enctten snsisttth sit of antbrooos altatsb ak deitibom 
tittw somabtooo8 mi es [lon se ,eevil thedd Yo. tinoilo 
: nottsatinos eat ona) .bstfLage e19n yedt dotdy of mel 
16% sttib edt .aliated Isasstoetidows isdto diin et109 
afiso nidtin emiot tiedt bototytes: dotdu,annoloo ead to 
7 ibio90n sterteqse tqed yifstesed od of terkt ew ,esi 
m edt “wotve of Bottesh eno Tk ,nottentbiodue to alqioniyg 
at @ syad tedt .anmuloo to axtot tnetettib to sbadi 
‘dotdn esebt oft {fs tevooets of .biton add to edieg 
b st stzozaae to sees 4 edt mi aslyoeg tInetsttib edd 
<9ldfenoqat ylettine Lie 
mes stot stintteb viedt sved anmoloo asitgy3® yor 
hei ed ‘ys etdtd ylno tud ,bentelqis od Jonnas 
satteth yllsottatretosisdo 101 bsteixe yfise{o besn 
| bas emste ,asvesl edt tedt .bne t9K0f edd wort st94Q" 
f asvia sat to elodays edt ,entyyed 598 astol sda to 
ne ,2007 vnet 2 to atrozqee efd yatisyo> 10% slieting bewet 
yer enmiloo teods yitasyss anifaix to soitosn7 shd dads 
estesio stostostidots nsftaqy3i sifine eat .motend tresone 
‘Be bevteonod sew 2ntbitwd ertine sdt teadd notsesrgas 
pond @ doldwe ,aebrod sibemon sft to etnet sat to nossed 
i 2. ncion bre ,3qy2a hehoow [{sn nedt ond ni eooely agoiwev 
tisvoten’ edt dns ,fnee edt ni etna’ tied? to atioagee 
eSiwtos{ noo. sid etimisg 3attofoo sat Yo tnomdasit sdt 
>-Odt apotaxe bloods [atiqeo seotn ,Jaoqqua & Yo Bed! 
Yo tent ab dod .sno svitiotty s ton ef ,asbi0d & itis 
dnts: antes se ,bae teqgn ond Yntnwoto to Snea kridtesoe qo 
date nottentdmoo at net fervit ott af basta ,mwwloo |dd Yo 
s otto. edt ted? .en yd bootetshow ton esebs oilodaye 
y ed yleorsoe mao metédysi ad? atin sonetiia [envetni me 
sedd nf ylno exettrbh plilsitnerss ti 28 .Jeentes ne be 
edd? Qnivisost to sebi edt etede ,fatiqss sontdos oat 
.  meotdans #2 sift ttoqqua [erosge 2 n@ sisdaidetas edt 
baa ' pevesl betntog yi beess1igxs mesd eved of yfiansaiio 
| eit ylleutos caw eitt redtedW .b1exqnob devise sisK etnieg 
| © s0,fytinon1sq of bebnetar ean [stiqeo oft00 sat doide sebi 
a fogde dtin bebtosh sd veven meso .2n of mroning sno tadsone 
| ) beviyoet! itiv esves{ to wor edt to eatot sat .ytaissiso. 


“iT 


108 
still, and will so remain for all future time. Still, they are 
modified in details according to the different nations, and the 
circuit of their lives, as well as in accordance with the prob- 
lem to #bich they were applied, and the combination of the sup- 
ports with other architectural details. The differentefunctions 
of the columns,w#hich restricted their forms within certain lin- 
its, are first to be carefully kept separate according to the 
principle. of subordination, if one desires to review the mult- 
itude of different forms of columns, that have arisen in all 
parts of the world. To discover all the ideas which influenced 
the different peoples in the formation of supports is first of 
all, entirely impossible. 

Why Egyptian columns have their definite form and no other, 
cannot be explained, but only this may be discerned, that the 
need clearly existed for characteristically distingutbing the 
upper from the lower end, that the leaves, stems and flowers 
of the lotus and papyrus, the symbols of the river Nile, were 
found suitable for covering the supports of a tent roof, and 
that the practice of winding tapestry about columns is a very 
ancient custom. The entire Egyptian architecture creates the 
impression that the entire building was conceived as an imi- 
tation of the tents of the nomadic hordes, which settled in v 
various places in the then well wooded Egypt, and stuck the 
supports of their tents in the sand, and the naturalism in 
the treatment of the coloring permits the conjecture, that the 
idea of a support, whose capital should express the conflict 
with a burden, is not a primitive one, but is that of holding 
up something and of crowning the upper end, as being the head 
of the column, stand in the first rank in combination with the 
symbolic ideas not understood by us. That the Doric column has 
an internal alliance with the Egyptian can scarcely be contest- 
ed in earnest, ar it essentially differs only in the form of 
the echinus capital, where the idea of receiving the load of 
the entablature on a special support like a cushion, appears 
originally to have been expressed by pointed leaves, «hose 
points were recurved downward. Whether this was actually the 
idea which the Doric capital was intended to personify) ,or 
another one unknown to us, can never be decided with absolute 
certainty. The forms of the row of leaves with recurved points, 


/ 


‘s boi sate Fok patorokene: s es beyolqae ylno ton aan fodder 
“0 mt bas ,stetoetidors astoet) [Is ai 1sduem gaidere 
dne of soonnoo ylemrot of ,stvtoesidors asmoH ak aids te 
pom 8 Ste orien atent noi? gatissqgs .etostdo gnstettsb 
af ee 28 four ,atnomels mot evitining to amtéeot 
0 vefetiqss nettayal to mwoto ytesl add nt betasest 
‘Yo eno baimes dotdx ,akbnT to bas ekersq te annaLloo 
Sento? erent mfatie1 otpontest ow biuode .etteade isege 
oq Sndffectuotetd ton et th ,seeoqtsg to tot abaed 
eb: ‘ed ([itw 1stostedo atest dotdw yd enoeset Isotniosd 
bne xevnoo oat ot bnogas 1109 amtot seedt es Bnibtooor 
/ 90 gniffeqer .gnitoratts ttedt dtin ,atedmem bel iterg 
sd ee ,arsdmem gnidioggqee bas Rnigetsqee es asfosi1s6io net 
8 bas ,nottositb to sonmentno1g Hebioeb « dtix« anieddeg 
: eanorstetooshd anie 
‘st ett bawot stetel dotdw ,fetiqso to miot swarflpoeq A 
| gt beonwbortnt asw ,[etiqgeo otnol eat mr tnemgoleveh 
een ersson eit odd ot esieeqas nofdaso s&s to wtot sat jared 
y aptar of aniviee nottans etd? ,eletigqeo to antol dove 
gtk of Ratbaocos dotdw bas ,5nyo018 edd svode mict oe 


» Wr 
? 


ates 
Fe 


pe to sebt! fanibizo eat YL .rtor # 10 efbbae « ,foote 

jesnoe qa gnthited to test déin Leortasb? yllantgixo 
} fooliesd bion edt ot bseeetgxs yhsotls asw erssqgs tt 
ety ence B ,pora] bas ,txogqea & .2iee® mort ai dokde 
7 edt svods boeias ¥ anota sit no antbnete” gainsem stot 
| a ted? fase edt gniyolqms ylferenss to seb edt ,(hataevele 
ct prot Latudosd tifore entticqgne & @& ,noeTsq betovet edt batt 
10° bas witist o2 tdkim eno base ,oiseitas yidgvot0ds ear 
Bids modx ys .znthin Yo tidad ods nt sigoeq & 2BK Ti add onw 
| son edt of Dsmotevoosnn eeont oftan ibseeastqaxs #aK Bedi 
y Sid to wedmem Anttsed f ae enosts no dale snote ect beyolg 
edd porev to enortatasaergs? edd ot ose coals yao sw ead? .fest 


-t»deas gew [etiges ot10d edd to mot od? es tant, ema tt a to 
| a 10 mieq ,etogit s droqqua of efmemonom yrerensl ak 
) ,betentgixo sved yeu Latiqeo ginol sd# Yo atot sdi rsvewon 
ry sfedtqes d#n00 oft: to dedd es [fen es ,ntgito Yo sbom edi 


nm th brennwob bas Stewgu ett oc es [lew es noigoeiih © 
axot oft semuens eomttamoe , stotefdetns edd anitaogque: 


eft ee bevyolqus yltoerth eased beoiwd # dtin fatigqaso oinol — 


109 

which was not only employed as a supporting but also as a sep- 
arating member is all Crecian architectsre, and in imitation . 
of this in Roman architecture, to formally connect to entirely 
different objects, appearing from their derivation to be modif- 
icaticns of primitive form elements, such as are likewise rep-— 
resented in the leafy crown of Egyptian capitals, and in the 
columns of persia and of India, which remind one of fringed 
spear shafts. Should we desire:ito retain these forms of leaf 
bands for our purposes, it is not historical but practical and 
technical reasons by which their character will be determined, 
according as these forms correspond to the convex and concave 
profiled members, with their attracting, repelling or transit- 
inn character as separating and supporting members, as band p 
patterns with a decided prominence of direction, and as enclo- 
sing decorations. | 

A peculiar form of capital, which later found its fullest d 
development in the Ionic capital, was introduced in western A 
Asia; the form of a cushion appears to thi the motive for all 
such forms of capitals, this cushion serving to raise the hum— 
an form above the ground, and which according to its horizontal 
direction as “ell as to its upward and downward directions, s 
‘Supporting the entablature , sometimes assumes the form of a 
stool, a saddle or a sofa. If the original idea of support was 
originally identical with that of building up something (hich 
it appears was already expressed in the word Basileos, king, 
which is from Basis, a support, and Laios, 4 stone slab, there- 
fore meaning “standing on the stone”}, raised above the others, 
elevated), the idea of generally employing the seat that supp- 
orted the favored person, as a supporting architectural form, 
wags thoroughly artistic, and one might go farther and conject- 
ure that it was a people in the habit of riding, by whom this 
idea was expressed! while those unaccustomed to the horse, em- 
ployed the stone slab or abacus as a bearing member of the cap- 
ital. Thus we may also see in the representations of vases the 
Tonic capital with a broad base directly employed as the seat 
of a figure, just as the form of the Doric capital was used 
in funerary monuments to support a figure, palm or acroteria. 

However the form of the Ionit capital may have originated, 
its mode of origin, as well as that of the Dor&e capital, has 


onl Nk A i da 
ie ere . 
Ort 

re igso ote] sad to tedt sa (few es .arartio Yo sbdom attr 

to efo1to edt sonte jetstostidorsa 10 tct somenrtingte on 
| atinif oft sbiatoo yllonwn eekf sersy tnaions sit to es 
elie yiletenss seods to stotetsdt? ,{stene3 ni asebi ne 
-aacot tnersttLb owt dtiw [etiqes sdf to evitom sal 
slatiqeo otnol odd af wtot ¢gedyid edt bedoast dotdx 

) ond TSvensin ,toetidors edt of eldsensqeibat nismor ayer 
Cs stcod sat at tnentmota yfbebtosh sham ad of sie enortos 
ton 6th erptostidors [svesibem zezeo done ar janet 
banotane: ot aottesb eno ti tro .Istiqso bebte-~ont edt 
#109 déiw 3nibftnd s to maoloo slans edd en Latiqes 
gp Asean taum sa .S1pteanc adh dtiw sonmsdsooor oi ton af 
asltmte tot sisera edt ys bosot tant ned? ,noitaloe 
hy snoretcA sik to efymet edt to caso ot es 
sid »ern etastosqxe [ut{tienw dose sisngkeeb yino aso sf 

faved ensaod edt doidn sot seods ea Ilew ee ators side 
-yleeeltdguods oa nsed syed doidw bose ,bemald doom oF 

te1isds edt nedd 199190 yfeorsce sis dent ,219 atshom a0 at 
_obne S cbaned etal sat x bestinieg entot [anrntoetiforws mi anc 
oe mee sonseetensy stsl ett 
“nets Gesad¢ to eunidos ets .[stiqso naiiy Ri wsbloe ent ar eh 
petifs et ag-ditw :[fed beqolevebnu ae yistsm ei Ietiqso 
Bijens.s ot okt Ietiqso [Ied nsitqy3h ent es teuR Metdins103 
ie feveb yilnt et eanaftqyah edt to fasiqeo [led sdt ylao 
a. 4 pe matdtatyod edt .enosds veqotq om aed Jf sonke ,eshie IIe 
Ne * yk atat of beti{f{s et bas eposda sft to m1ot ent et107 
ett conte _({ancgyfog 10 1sfoknetat Tt ose) nslq ore 
1B id to esigae 94% taoqqgee asvee! bane: ellowe begolaveb yl 
8g dt bas ettseo1 sit .arewoll to euto? fegtontag ont -auo 
Ged alevistat odd {1tt ,ebod beqolsved tien att es Ifon es 
0 atT8y anthivib bare Lfentmiet edt mi0t baa ,emste boa eoves! 
reqarb eve eedoissd aslfene end efidw ,esdonaid weano1da oft 
on ei f[etiqso natdininod edt .eentl to yaly sort as nik be 
“i sft sasfimte to astaolo 8 ,fattqso [fed meitqyad act exif .19 
basota qu xo18 eamtot taal tod ,1redtexot bawod esvee! baa exe 
-4 to ybota dgootodd edt eysated fofdn ,1ennsm & nt [fed eda 
| se sidietv ylogisl et {fed sit tt jrotgqinow Xee1D sat yI e8 
) j betevos ylseofo et tt ,ebniti to tsxoT eft Yo Latiqso.and ak 
90 ,ybod edd eaisvo> tiida 6 es tent) ,2evest deilqqe to wor 6 


110 
its mode of origin, as well as that of the Doric capital, has 
no significance for our architecture, since the circle of ide- 
as of the ancient vases lies wholly outside the limits of bun- 
an ideas in general, therefore of those generally valid. 

The motive of the capital with two different forms of sides, 
which reached its highest form in the Ionic capital, will al- 
ways remain indispensable to the architect, whenever two dir- 
ections are to be made decidedly prominent in the horizontal 
plane. in sach cases mediaeval architecture did not exclude t 
the two-sided capital. But if one desires to employ the Ionic 
capital as the angle column of a building with porticos, which 
is not in accordance with its nature, he must seek a happier 
solution, than that found by the greeks for similar buildings, 
as in case of the temple of Nike Apteros. 

We can only designate such unskilful expedients as objection- 
able errors, as well as those for which the Romans have been 
so much blamed, and which have been so thoughtlessly imitated 
in our modern era, that are scarcely better than the aberrati- 
ons in architectural forms permitted py the late fothic and 
the late Renaissance. 

As in the older Egyptian capital, the echinus of the Doric 
capital is merely en undeveloped bell; with it is allied the 
Corinthian, just as the Egyptian bell capital i:: to the latter; 
only the bell capital of the Egyptians is fully developed on 
all sides, since it has no proper abacus, the Corinthian sup- 
ports the form of the abacus and is allied to this by its squ- 
are plan (also if triangular or polygonal), since the most ful- 
ly developed scrolls and leaves support the angles of the aba- 
cus. Two principal forms of flowers, the rosette and the palm, 
as well as the half developed buds, fill the intervals between 
leaves and stems, and form the terminal and dividing parts of 
the stronger branches, while the smaller brarches are dispers- 
ed in a free play of lines. The Corinthian capital is no long- 
er, like the Egyptian bell capital, a cluster of similar flow- 
ers and leaves bound together, but plant forms grow up around 
the bell in a manner, which betrays the thorough study of nat- 
ure by the Greek uculptor; if the bell is largely visible as 
in the capital of the Tower of Winds, it is closely covered by 
a row of applied leaves, Just as a shirt covers the body, or 


oes: tre 

noo et Kor eno ti ptartt eft to abne tewol sit etevoo esvebl | 
Sit to wor t9nnt sdd stil aegbde dtodme dtin eevas! to beso 
to no1 eto edt 10 ,ebath Yo asw0f sdt to Letigao 
t to neveol adt esedt of tesitno> & 28 ,asteitoiagf Yo gn 


= to anotetont qseb svad Sas steitee ylqsed ese wot bac: 


o>) yake fo? tad endénsos of2 no-bavct yiao ton 218 e8 dows, 
oboe yqqoq .siteidt ed¢ efgmsxe tot ,(noboqionO) eet 
“edt ylfsisne, yrev et tI oto (maslostel ) east il 
yo maidtatioD sat ni botetink ek mot Inplq L[atoeqe 
1 edd mor? esiaq oftetastosieio bre [siosge exom0d st 
» evel omae adt dtiw eonabtcooe at eesadt egofavsb bf 
. faa it Isebt ae estest> andd boe .atasla I[satos to seodd ee 
082 3" p dotdn letiqso edt to etisq saods adese sherlot seodn 
‘a saevasl seodw to abas sdt .tnetroqgmr teom ylfeoiaiem 
soca eft asban ga [for 10 ,Aswo73 sett af svinoe7 296 
oft esa tevt toatl aot evirtta of tsegae siewolt saode 
toes betefquoo sds to atsez st#reqee odd [fA .etwtan 
Hoaadea: foss ot noktsfe1 deod edt at Omste L[atiqeo neida 
pom # ni teso ti ea,omaoed bane Seftiexso tert asn0t ent 
iba acdtm|acA) yth tey bas bellene ylleottatrnter 
“gnted etd? ,fetiqes msiost) edi mi boteors yifleasien 
thoage edt ton Sae [eotayt sit bSyofqme :ylnovode .sisand edd 
pmo entoml eudiaeos Inroten ylno ea? .tnemento nt etnslg to 
> ©. (atedenssee nt encteysd otdtod ylies ae nit bavol af 

at of emooed ead [stigeo aaiddatioD sat Yo aviton aot 
8 “yino ton eeze ofhbin edt tadt ,sisdossidore ai elder 
stedd) .ti heqofseveb yilutituessd on neve oels stud ,genitence 
ftntzoD) .fstiqes vatost> ext afsupes ti esigqusxe Ssaoe 
V ryefessY mott ;OCh VI .esgendo® ;esltA mort ales 
| eedean> te entefobsy .2 wort ;€0C IL .etel Jord ,osl 
RarneKr. : s(DS: RET .T penettei9n® semen ont 

to mk rovesadn tadt .efatiqes oswod edt to yen teonls yam 9 
boom ton at wea ai yeyeteinw bas .won tom si book ak ment 
fe -etex enesoh edt yd eisfostidois nefoet) nf sbsm eegnsdo 
ee .amrot edt to aninsen Ienigito sav of soneistss yns su0 
| Maton yfteltdo {antetxze ylsitine sottqeonoo 6 te Hoksgeoxs odd 
eno ylno edt teonfs et [etiqso otto on? .ebasony Is0itoerg 
{of ,beanteceth et tnsmevotqni as noftsntotens1d seodw af 


1% 


ast} 


ook pee 


Bea) (ins 
0 KO pnooee A .onomate edt i fushuae sswolt 8 to assay 


antl 


111 
the corolla of a flower conceals the stamens. A second row of 
leaves covers the lower ends of the first; if one row is comp- 
osed of leaves with smboth edges like the inner row of the | 
capital of the Tower of Winds, or the outer row of the }onume- 
nt of iysicrates, as a contrast to these the leaves of the sec- 
Ond row are deeply serrate and have deep incisions or leaf eyes, 
such as are not only found on the acanthus but on many composi- 
tae (Onorpodon), for example the thistle, poppy and many umbel- 
liferae (Heracleum) etc. It is very generally the case that no 
special plant form is imitated in the Corinthian capital, but 
it borrows special and characteristic parts from the plant wor- 
ld, develops these in accordance with the same laws of growth, 
as those of actual plants, and thus creates an ideal flora, w 
whose foliage seeks those parts of the capital, which are geo- 
metrically most important, the ends of whose leaves and branch- 
es recurve in free growth, or roll up nnder the abacus, and w 
wnose flowers appear to strive for light just as flowers do in 
nature. All the separate parts of the completed Grecian Corin- 
thian capital stand in the best relation to each other, but 
the Roman first ossified and became as if cast in a mould , 
naturistically swelldd and yet dry (Acanthus leaves are never 
naturally treated in the Crecian capital, this being far from 
the Creeks, whovonlyremployed,the typical and not the specific 
of plants in ornament. The only natural acanthus known to. me 
is found in an early Cothic keystone in Regensburg). 

The motive of the Corinthian capital has become so indispen- 
sable in architecture, that the middle ages not only used it 
sometimes, but also even so beautifully developed it, that iu 
some examples it equals the Creciau capital. (Corinthian capi- 
tala from Arles; Schnaase, IV, 490; from Vezelay; Viollet-le- 
Duc, Dict. Rais. II, 503; from S. Hadelaine at Chateandun; 
the same; Entretiens, I, Fig. 24). | 

We may almost say of the Roman capitals, that whatever in t 
them is good is not new, and whatever is new is not good. The 
changes made in Grecian architecture by the Romans were hith- 
out any reference to the original meaning of the forms, with 
the exception of a conception entirely external, chiefly on 
practical grounds. The Doric capital is almost the only one 
in whose transformation an improvement is discerned, it has 


> oan ee ee er WED ae ha ir 
bas + anon eit qo1t soniteth aiptieaa eho smooed| hedhh 
p wereds .tattel edt to eoitiastivosy yasm tito Jee 
to be20qm09 egatbitod at yifetosqas. ytilidees 
Ja Hejaewte oie ansufeo to etabto tastetTiIb sdt stedn 
2 me «19050 
age olevab esx dotdn ,18bI0 stinogeey mamod belfeo~oe eal 
t efatiqes> naidtnivoD Sse ofnol soit astot gninidmos 
| dofime of bne asinote [assvee at exarbitod to sige 
a tks ozaia edt otk teso yltect ed yes jemret to nt0 
ia elstiaso netditnkio? Sedercosh yl{eteos12 edt dae 
jedd ytsv ao tan apie BY nt -Seyolgme sd somenetened 
ed? emtot to eafa sort 8 dttw [ettqeo neidtariwd eat 
dt 3tobne dt @f ed% to esattneinl? edt dotde ssb10 
i? sonia. ,anoftoelthe1g Isool sort yolqme of berretetg 

me sat ,ensoanT tasions odd Yo nottnsvel ms ad oF Jf 
(es [fon ee .soivertilY to etnonetste sit of Batbioooe 
soo tf ,w9hto teslynts edt se savacsdanocesss L[eote 
as trot iton: att ead ,etuddedidorse boteotteut dtin Ife 
yc taenc! eft nated as to ,28b10 ofsol berdilgmis to bait 
99 aren yan on tk ,Sancg otaesio sit oi 1sb10 etefqmoo & to 
of {fe of bseoqgo dauodsle erat? soda laottqeia dguont 
a id. beysdo yllotiteb bus setversiY ys bedrimeansit atqso 
“ne 90: “eanaoed yletem sft yolqas fon blpor on bus ,eonsaetaced 
mo nate b amo Detiee Jf eeeo nt yfno ever ,on emod bed etneto 
“Bigia ed? -ytsitqgotg ottentse bas agsnetsingotqys. to ebasor3 
| ntdons | pitas to auooqancod sfodn sdf dns entvoitiV to estos 
nares m2 oats tud ,adisq bn aefybom ylno ton ,emtot Lerstost 
#asb-bae-gae ,alttned bas eelotom ,ayotb das eaty .weqosem bas 
ise tb Msotrotsia edt ak ynoled ,.o88 ,auniteanyo Saspagntdioom 
nis $ ons ,s20ginq [ser yns [itInt regnof om yedt 28 noosa es 
bnog so tom ss0b to an ot awondnn yiteom st eance [engzito 
er ot sot0ot anthbatd on esd bane ,esebt to slorto 150 of 
. pent to tnetorttes bevse oved se Oned eno sdt no andl 
be (9 dae0 ot Sellsqmoo sd 10 usdt stongt ton of atebro tsanploo 
vat ‘ot tdznoe avad bred t9dto edt no dud .bisodisve yletidne 
Bar. -etniertanoo Isnoitibsid atedd wort eeviseise 
Y [en eit tcods sevise1is0 yntidgort tot ateixe sted basa of 
8 odd to tneutestt sds to asien mot taetiogat wilsoisodeia 
.yfne ;af{stiqeo nebsmmstoy bas sattnssyS naitetnd) yl 


490) 


Py” 


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dH | 


112 
indeed become one entirely distinct fror the Crecian, and has 
cast off many peculiarities of the latter, thereby gaining,in 
usability, especially in buildings composed of several stories, 
ahere the different orders of columns are arranged above each 
other. . 

The so-called Roman qomposite order, which was developed by 
combining forms from Ionic and Corinthian capitals for the 
sake of buildings in several stories and to enrich the repert- 
orw of forms; may be justly cast into the historical discard | 
and the gracefully decorated Corinthian capitals of the early 
Renaissance be employed in itsnplace, which vary the motive of 
the Corinthian capital with a free play of form. The Tuscan 
order which the Florentines of the 15 th end'16)th centuries 
preferred to employ from local predilections, since they held 
it to be an invention of the ancient Tuscans, the Etruscans, 
according to the statements of Vitruvius, as well as for prac- 
tical reasonsbecause as the simplest order, it corresponded 
well with rusticated architetture, has its justification as a 
kind of simplified Doric order, or as being the lowest form 
of a complete order in the classic gense, if we may so speak, 
though skeptical abou. this, although opposed to all the pre- 
cepts transmitted by Vitruvias and dutifully obeyed by the 
Renaissance, and we would not employ it merely because the an- 
cients had done so, save only in case it suited our design on 
grounds of appropriateness and esthetic propriety. The rigid 
rules of Vitruvius and the whole hocuspocus of antique archi- 
tectural forms, not only modules and parts, tut also triglyphs 
and metopes, vise and drops, mutules and dentils, egg-and-dart 
mouldingss#and cymatiums, etc., belong in the historical discard, 
as soon as they no longer fulfil any real purpose, and their 
origanal sense is mostly unknown to us or does not correspond 
to our circle of ideas, and has no binding force for us. 

Thus on the one hand we have saved sufficient of the classic 
columnar orders to not ignore them or be compelled to cast them 
entirely overboard, but on the other hand have sought to free 
ourselves from their traditional constraints. 

No need here exists for troubling ourselves about the merely 
historically important form wares of the treatment of the ear- 
ly Christian, Byzantine and Mohammedan capitals; only mediaeval 


ge Veet al 
ert Perel 


e nottoorth aids at easebt wen woe mad’ eradsbdinone ri 
te tirenev? no v8tqed) edt nt bedste aA wae of eeefsulev 
7 ane edd ne ,efatiqes sit trsoor of betistet eas 3f 
or yldersteny aatitaty? sft at ee [stiqao sdt to taom 
“adda gnikviao oi) .eanto? [fed to ekyntisvoo svisaiooep of 
) fettqao notdano st. sitf emiot mottians7s xsva0o 30. 
t et trove? A ,Atod to nortentinod & at .olyte eupasnem 
t so" Stal of antwob yiteal .siyte eapesaaetod sit to 
eds Pion ehnedo edt dotdw at ,ebati [fe to antot noksis 
40995 fon 4805 auosds [enozyfoy to e18up2 sdt of nmuloo 
fottoe2 Yo aeznado eoottsvy to ensen yd sod ,evewo taloget 
Han .patess!g bas tnseptq died emtot .3ntiledieo to esbon 
J sd taom esoqiny sdf nedw eidettisent yiistosyes ere 
«epee 10% hel eae nk ee ,enaom tesijmie sis yd 
: See . ote ,eirefosiidors moskr at 
{FoD qixse edt to nase eat mort benrssf ed yan dol! 

Bietiqs to tnomtsext dt rot ewlev Yo at fotin ,fediqeo 
Stemtxorgye oreklot sit wadtede of ylleape bn {erened 


ie 3 s10lt nieddton tno to esodt to Betot teef eodtmeoe 


_ fies taon | ,gosesm edt Ytornotetvih edt eete{qmoo terit aid 
“pectin yAtoold dguor edt mot? [sttqao edt tuo antigen tot efd 
bee: pee enet{ot sat nt esttirsitsoeg ynam to tnomgols 

eg 8as, io tnautseit ent .sisten: to noftevisedo [stereo yrsev e 
nts stm ‘noktosnnod eft tae .batiqqe et sastfot edt dordw of 
hadline 4s pbs yfedefqnoo teom et [atrqso [eveethem eT .ancade 
10a: a edt bas ,etosqees yaam nt sottoustenoo betluav 
sa in to deat 19tq beretanlo sat of bsttna retted ak norsan 
ten: es Se beqolsveb of bertwpst si dotdw bas ,{strago to 

Bnogeert0o alstiqes to emtc? spptias eat oltdw mottos 

“Sstoten eti yi doftdw .gotds C[eobivtbat ne es nnsloo 

Swevensdy .antess[q 3d of se of Setetiagp to beviad od 

orm foo 16 elatiqes hetetiswp 10 bsviad sved etsteam sonseete 

B55 i to yttavog 10 seesnbiswiws to yonstatedco bshie~sno yd 

Yiso Sct .astositedne thedt yen omse odd nt betsert neve 10 

fuset sved erotanom yino .sonseetened steal edt mt se .edt 

toot anon: yasm sat to sno Satmtot sesdt to aotsiating oat 
ns -o1ndoetidors atebom tuo to 
brmt: otiteo: yitee eas of awo sw tant ata> [eqtontty eT 

Hivgntes yierod? at atetenoo [atiqeo oft to tnemtaerds sat of 


Says 


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pw = 


oe to 
ayde: 


ie Ge 
architecture can show new ideas in this direction, which are 
valueless to us. As stated in the Chapter on Transition Forms, 
it has preferred to accent the capitals, and the entire treat— 
ment of the capital as in the Corinthian preferatly consists 
in decorative coverings of bell forms, in carving low reliefs 
on convex transition forms like the cushion capital of the Ro- 
manesque style, in a combination of both, a favorite feature — 
of the Romanesque style, lastly during the late Cothic in tran- 
sition forms of all kinds, in which the change from the round | 
column to the square or polygonal abacus does not occur by a 
regular curve, but by means of various changes of section and 
modes of corbelling, forms both piquant and pleasing, which ; 
are especially justifiable when the purpose must be fulfilled 
by the simplest means, as in buildings for ordinary purposes, 
in iron architecture, etc. 

Much may be learned from the study of the early Cothic bell 
capital, ahich is of valwe for the treatment of capitals in 
general, and equally so whether the foliage approximates the 
acanthus leaf forms or those of our northern flora. 

This first completes the division of the masses, most suita- 
ble for working out the capital from the rough block, the dey- 
elopment of many peculiarities in the foliage itself, based on 
a very careful observation of nature, the treatment of the bell, 
to which the foliage is applied, and its connection with the 
abacus. The mediaeval capital is most completely adapted to v 
vaulted construction in many respects, and the mode of its for- 
mation is better suited to the clustered pier that other forms 
of capital, and which is required to developed vaulted constr- 
uction, while the antique forms of capitals correspond to the 
column as an individual thing, which by its nature can never 
be halved or quartered so as to be pleasing. Whenever the Ren- 
aissance masters have halved or quartered capitals or columns, 
by one-sided consistency or awkwardness or poverty of ideas, 
or even treated in the same way their substitutes, the caryat- 
ids, as in the late Renaissance, only monsters have resulted, ; 
the imitation of these forming one of the many monstrosities 
of our modern architecture. 

The principal gain that we owe to the early Cothic in regard " 
to the treatment of the capital consists in thereby being taught — 


err 


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we ms 19tq edt to wesm sit dtiw ynomtad mt adioav snd 39 
med eaomufoo otesefs to eanoktioqorg sdT .ebsol isd 
iattasees ted? seretaldetas wtedt dtin yldoetrex 
misieb sd¢ of yintnt toodtin sldiaaogrt sxe mots i6ad 
»*  ytsbto ettins eft to retostedo 
™ tn edt Yo ynomied edt yd bextt ef tezted ent sradh 
| ona sai ot stsdbe ylmikt of sfdtaacg ton si tt .etutosst 
r te eeg1g0081 Bnived suodtiin erebio ofaesto sat to anc 
WSisuort zated to to .efataebsq no medt antoely to taethb 
Bote: end nkdtixn ylnO .batd yrsve Yo esonsinavooont 
fot betaseang stew dotdn ,emeldorw [eiptostidors sase 
bed eisbhbto ett to enotsroqgorwy sdt neo ,tostidorwe ofe 
O YIS8V Svad atetesm sonfeasiensd sdf boa ,bantater 
} ton .Bigtoetidorve dowd at dbsesetiedns sovissuedct 
pitns sdt Yo tnterienod sdf wo1t sevieenedt esrt of 
anatia sdt tine of nely sds esnen1r8 of belleqaoo sat 
7 aseso fous nl .sete9n02 sit to beetent ,enunloo sai 
mod 94 dotde of ,etnfootidors [avestbex Ifpenon ylne 
i edd bentarsteb. dotdy tod .axoming ean mottibs13 to 
WHoksvloe z0t betmese?4 nefdorg eat dviw eonaehioooe at 
Te .eie01? ant to tedd e8 Onwoe es yank feet oftarsas oe 
Piiede edt bezitte ayents teomls eolyte otaeelo ont 
3 to Hofaesiqmt edt Heoneine dotde ,eotult dttw mnvloo 
Mt BtSn astu!t easdf .amploo aft to sonstatest boe ytib 
xoldon BHF. %0 denoynoo enmufos to ease nt eeqtite bablta ys 
10. Sant eds ni beoslq seodt 10 [atem to o20dd ,snote to absid 
ae HB ,a tt wetv to Inioq oitedtes 2s mort ;etnemtssi8 to 
Sapeeeeeeemontin esmofoo oviensm bas sgis! eves! of evosgedcev 
: E tysrnenso~ ed? no dg00dy ,yveed tesdiver tssqqe yadd sonie 
EBAIHICOOA .anmuloo. rebnefe Hue [femme of bative Ilew 
p cbren 0 bedeintmth ed of sttwpay eyseta fomufoo agebt 
sty?! s19d70 doses avin betosmncs nadw Ona sort sntdnete 
if bases ae ,aldertivesl et ttede ant to tassarsiae mA 
a) bone tatesh mroting to aw1c% eff ao eotnotosT to rstqeq? 
of ea of sonstetee1 aft Sue tdytow mero ett tr .sis2e2e 
es setemeth tswol eft sean terrt ent ot :bsiebtenoo ad 
f# Stow od Hl{oode tnemeirelos edt haonee eit nt :tretesrs 


2 


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ri At Y 


> oat to mottosio71q bas tized to anottroqorg ond! oxen, oy rf 


iii 


114 
to make the proportions of height and projection of the capital 
entirely independent of the diameter of the column, and to pla- 
ce the vaults in harmony with the mass of the pier and with t | 
their loads. The proportions of classic columns harmonize so 
perfectly with their entablatures, that essential variations 
therefrom are impossible without injury to the determinate 
character of the entire order. 

Where the height is fixed by the harmony of the entire arch- 
itecture, it is not possible to firmly adhere to the proporti- 
ons of the classic orders without having recourse to the expe- 
dient of placing them on pedestals, or of being troubled by 
inconveniences of every kind. Only within the limits of the 
same architectural problems, which were presented to the clas- 
sic architect, can the proportions of its orders be strictly 
retained, and the Renaissance masters have very often found 
themselves embarrassed in church architecture, not being able 
to free themselves from the constraint of the antique, but be- 
ing compelled to arrange the plan to suit the arrangement of | 
the columns, instead of the coneerse. In such cases oné can 0 
only consult mediaeval architecture, to wbich the constraint 
of tradition was unknown, but which determined the propostions 
in accordance with the problem presented for solution, with 
an artistic feeling as sound as that of the Creeks. 

The classic styles almost always striped the shaft of the 
column with flutes, which enhanced the impression of the rigi- 
dity and resistance of the column. Phese flutes were replaced 
vy gilded stripes in case of columns composed of the nobler ; 
kinds of stone, those of metal or those placed in the interiors 
of apartments; from an esthetic point of view it is very disad- 
vantageous to leave large and massive columns without flutes, 
since they appear rather heavy, though on the contrary this is 
well suited to small and slender columns. According to classic 
ideas columns always require to be diminished upward, both when © 
standing free and when connected with each other. 

An enlargement of the shaft is justifiable, as stated in the 
Chapter of Tectonics on the Forms of uniform Resistance to Pr- 
essure, if its own weight and its resistance to crushing must 
be considered; in the first case its lower diameter shouldbe 
greatest; in the second the enlargement should be more nearly 


—— Di cei : 


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; 4 ; : ' 
: pi », 


ert 

YY Sof 46 sifbim sat te 

dd hie hsme%ot es1ex enwefoo ot100 svinesa cay 
t cee Migatio® (Let viey tot ,betate ylewotverg eA afzioning 
d tre Stone yuew AT shnoose Shh Atiw btooos Ylfseoeu ane 

Ma Se 

eee © Dim! yetigev svlesau s1og 168 ot hevolgag S88. ennaloo 
meeting Sfdaashiesop s ,enoktosiid ynem sf adeniit gre 
a cn 9 sh. .[f6 ts snOm of sldeistety etsedds menfoo edt 
Yo soua miveltasteeh Spe ef iGktiteni, ylasifvosg ef 
c HeBaes ~9fde ont a0 :3akdepte of Seregxa enmefoo oi! 
: Bene tad 9977 Haate ton of ted? enegloo shrains of eense 
Beeeeememel Sonitowoe bas sonsratensi! steal ott mt andb ae 
note meen Of Sioteeliq beyisink .esebt to ytrsevey nteboer 
roene om Amon YO meseun Bit BF Tad  .bis>eib [eobsodetd eds 
edt nadd ymoot Stom {lite ad of satkypes tact 
| a ead BO 9no Stenolor of event satwoitl [lade 6a roscom 
@gedu .anaifoo fhelaciteu? to tadt .aiebsacld etrro 
» kod alitdx ,exXoold befsorstect ss betessad ena eayah 
mom .2eneseanon sift .beqof[syeb yilut ss eeeed bie 
th Settibes: ef ,sonsaetananiedd to e719 Saeed eddy neve at 
ae Beavioo tied edt to erga sit [[s mds issarew ec 
1:8. Poeeeeogsh ods iti hbotagtont ti ze iseqqs yadsh ede 
x ‘Saf D GFiW Stentetta edoold evenpa Setactitews oO \kei7¢ 
bail eda Babteqesg at tnece need bad yonom sit ti an panorb 
Bat: | at meat to t{sd ,feottbar(yo [le ase samnb sad 10 
aq of ianlod add Yo estult edt tqoetietnk of @8 og noitsotseus 
Sgeatoonn 0% .amuloo. ett brvors beoely ebned Agnot sit! 3nene 
La SSonsaeianel edt stadt yrsh [Liw kntiest ofsaters be 
" t nod Booders5a0 Ifew a d#ven edt ot @a [law ee dduoa ons 
Wd nSeodio ansen edd dttx tostts tnsortingag a spond 
fodm ani to bre alteteh to seottroqery hook aisido of 
 9n0 Slate tod ,auolleytam eo of Santinos eysnia [iby 
“saneenon eniemet dordwy genet] enogang wort me0q 6 qe 
soldi Beet Sratootidors Yo dinow ed) .as8 sdt of Qrieselg 
Sotodo ody. om ylntan coals tod ~tosttes anieael; oth me 
Br bas jessoyt0y esaninseted 10% nevidtow tousedesatoadiy 
. Sirdors Yo tyex stefanoo s Qnied we bersbiencs 54 ayewnie 
Peeewseritns esvison [stytoetidots snidmoo of .antnssr 

hae \ution s entans: eyawla neloo ant to steae oT 
t RAMSAY to notfosnncs bsttinu # yated es debrez01 9d 19 


ae 


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ante 
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a, 


115 

at the middle of the shaft. | 

The massive Doric columns were formed according to the first 
principle as previously stated, but very tall Corinthian colu- 
mos usually accord with the second. If wery short and thick | 
columns are employed to support massive vaults, whose ribs ex- 
ert thrusts in many directions, a considerable enlargement of 
the column appears preferable to none at all. An enlargement 
is peculiarly justifiable and desirable in case of thin metal- 
lic columns exposed to crushing; on the other hand it is non-— 


sense to enlarge columns that do not stand free but are grouped, 


as done in the late Renaissance and sometimes imitated through 
modern poverty of ideas. Enlarged pilasters do not belong in 
the historical discard, but in the museum of human nonsense, 
that requires to be still more roomy than the former. To this 
museum we shall likewise have to relegate one of the most fav- 
orite blunders, that of rusticated columns, where separate dr 
drums are treated as rustacated blocks, while their capitals 
and bases are fully developed. This nonsense, a ifavorite idea 
in even the best era of the Renaissance, is modified in vario- 
us ways;either all the drums of the half columns are rusticated, 
ahen they appear as if incrusted with the deposits from a hot 
spring, or rusticated square blocks alternate with circular d 
drums, as if the money had been spent in preparing the former, 
or the drums are all cylindrical, half of them retaining their 
rustication so as to interrupt the flutes of the column, appe- 
aring like rough bands placed around the column. No uncorrupt— 
ed artistic feeling will deny that the Renaissance masters in 
the south as well as in the north well understood how to pro- 
duce a magnificent effect with the means chosen by them, and 
to obtain good proportions of details and of the whole, which 
will always continue to be marvellous; but since one may patch 
uP a poem from pompous phrases which remains nonsense, though 
pleasing to the ear, the worth of architecture lies not merely 
in its pleasing effect, but also mainly in the choice of means, 
azithothesuseyof motives for determinate purposes, and it must 
always be considered as peing a complete wayt of architectural 
meaning, to combine architectural motives entirely at pleasure. 


The shaft of the column always remains a unity, and can nev—- — 


er be regarded as being a unified connection of the manifold 


f 


ae | pti 10, ee ad Pontine Nae syisomhe oi tl 
. “aid? abu ybexsvon of emiwadal yen yasoeer 
aya Sifter 40 gritareg’ yd hosfod eft to BnsIBVOO ey 
af 8 odnt febivit sd binoss fwelog sat Xo Stade eas 
(eta rheatetat ne yi t¥eg t98q7o tatbid © baa hoOLITo7 
oy ‘ea? of setveiae biove of 2 abantolco mt Be i90f 
pefy 990 et Sisde ade Ao Was, sol yodt com Io egeaeey 
iss Haoyed gnttosyorg boragtsiey gt bred talonna oe 
iS naploo sdi Yo bitdt: rewol oAt eXsm of ,ttede ada Ye 
ao i a bso misiq edt sfereges eiy-eds oF efteel io .s48aet 
ee Spend oF tu? .trss t9qqe betelt ent mort noitroy wer6! 
JO efelyznoo mt af eshte to #sqtn0> Yo beacgnos th eA. 
tanoo weyewle dotdn ,acitgeono> oftetise onmt 8 ot 
mn yond, ele! edna to, beeoquoy bosord.ytino a #6 emu 
va en oy yaebttan tovwnitentimes edt yd beoutory Jon det 
a6 yd ieee eit (Yo Bhoniatdd 609 sreotonr oF stkee> ow V1 
8 ? Geliorgue erstsostorq asiworrsciase ro ral ygce 
ot it taessaotd ote bee ,ecnsasianehatal sds ar batquacte 
noe be wate yrove Lien sit to anttocttenes sai of Sneyer 
ba bas <Obran teeo yilfodwe sd pf et owofoo otaanJoyens 
rer jeanse oat nt ylnoveldattiten, eb I[stiqao dd Yo 
| 1 ffen ant nor? enottostiorg ersat of nobtegia 
ut ed nen lo betatet ea enmeloo ads Qeatt of . yl lant? 
4 bas afdpittd aay gino etntoet ida at sidaegoitoecdo 
" yistaq ot #8 [lew ee yateobot tte ns yatnsse 6 
-otnt eoreag gehts to slytontyg emesquae edd sornw int 
et rie $d¢ to Amisalt edt fred tedte ed¢ nO .b00dh 
S318 womtm att to extor Cle at aotmaen be sangtey 
be svitsioosh dtiv asaso to esnizde sdf ynolei oafe 
| to eotnotoel Ya vesgad> sad af benottese paths 
ihe <tamsiie to aot edt nietead esggt) [agionrig seeds 
— ebaogesit63 emtot hastaint sitl-weros To ovitoan eat 
0: BP PsA of yanrc} ovidales of hrszeTME ADLhoOvOST Mh HBE 
int #09, due eétsaq of nottiscoq7o ai aboisit to -enot 
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1 Sel rob bsyolgus fas ,atiine yitieg bra bodato? 
oP 229809704 
an soustaten ak bisa =F oF brow ve Kabnees If{ite ereaT 
unserem sefo tevatede his ,petoret eonted .eeteslos veda 


ee 


116 
like masonry; it may indeed be hung or would with tapestry as 
masonry may likewise be movered, and in this way all decorati- 
ve covering of the column by painting or reliefs is justified; 
the shaft of the column should be divided into a lesser loner 
portion and a higher upper part by an intermediate member, ei- 
ther as in colonnades to avoid injuries to the flutes from the 
passage of men, the lower part of the shaft is left plain or 
an annular band is interposed, projecting beyond the lower part 
of the shaft, to make the lower third of the column appear th- 
icker, or lastly to sharply separate the plain or decorated : 
lower portion from the fluted upper part. But to treat a column 
as if composed of courses of stones is in complete opposition 
to a true artistic conception, which always considers the col- 
umn as a unity, indeed composed of parts like the human form, 
but not produced by the combination of unities. 

If we desire to increase the thickness of the wall by rect- 
angular or semicircular projections, a problem very frequently 
attempted in the late Renaissance, and the treatment is to cor- 
respond to the constructian of the wall, every reminiscence of 
the classic column is to be wholly cast aside, and a treatment 
of the capital is justifiable.only in the sense of being a ter- 
mination to these projections from the wall. 

Finally, to treat the columns as twisted elements is always 
objectionable in architecture, only justifiable and possessing 
a meaning in art industry as well as in purely ornamental works, 
in which the supreme principle of weight passes into the back- 
ground. On the other hand the fluting of the colugn loses its 
purpose and meaning in all works of the minor arts, to which 
also belong the shrines or cases with decorative and symbolic 
meaning, mentioned in the Chapter of Tectonics on Proportions, 
whose principal types retain the forms of actual’ buildings. 

The motive of screw-like twisted forms corresponds , as we 
gay in Tectonics in regard to relative forms, to all combinat- 
ions of tierods in opposition to parts subject to crushing, as 
nell as to constructions of hollow tubes, which are partly per- 
forated and partly entire, and employed for the most diverse 
purposes. 

There still remains a word to be said in reference to carya- 
tids, atlantes, hermes figures, aid whatever else remains in 


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the service of architecture, from the more or less thoughtful 
works of classic sculpture, as well as of the mediaeval figure 
columns, etc. 

Whoever uncritically admires everything done by the Greeks, 
and wonders at it purely because it was invented by them, will | 
denounce as a heresy the mere question, ahether the famous car- 
yatide porch of the Erechteum at Athens is altogether beautiful. 
Perhaps I may not be the only one, who woulda hold it to be a 
Barocco idea however beautiful the columns, if it had no symb- 
olical meaning, and who would feel uypleasantly the execrable 
disproportion between it and the architecture. There is not 
merély a want of harmony between the animated figures in cont- 
rast with the stiff architecture that they support, but still 
more in the proportion of the supporting masses to that supp- 
orted. Had the middle ages ever permitted a canopy to be sin- 
ilarly supported by statues of Christ and the twelve apostles, 
what a clamor would have been raised over such bad taste. But 
if we desire to retain the idea and to regard it as original, 
for the Greeks to employ figures as architectural members, we 
must still regard this freak as an exception, which acquires 
no higher value by repetition; besides we should not forget 
that caryatids and at lantes were used as if set in the pill- 
ory or in an even more debased sense, and in this is clearly 
indicated the limit of the permissible, in the introduction of 
human figures as architectural members; differently from free 
sculpture not in the service of architecture, a harmonic union 
of the plastic arts must be represented in connection with pa- 
inting and architecture, and the use of the human form as a 
caricature is indeed justified as a substitute for architectu- 
ral members if boldly treated; but the contradiction between 
the movement of human or animal forms and the rigid architect- 
ural structure can never be wholly effaced, if these are arr- 
anged in any sesse other than that of being a cecoration of 
the architecture. Figure decoration of all kincs is doubttess 
not only appropriate in architecture, but even desirable as be-- 
ing the highest means of ornamentation; but it should not rep- 
lace architectural details. On the other hand these considera- 
tions entirely disappear in the minor arts, for the frequently 
stated reason that the principle of weight is not there predon- 


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118 
predominant, which causes in the greater arts and in construct- 
ion the appearance of rigidity of construction. | 

The Renaissance architects probably were only acquainted with 
caryatids and atlantes through Vitruvius, and they created mir- 
acles in architecture without the aid of these extreme artistic 
expedients; on the contrary our era deluges us with figures of 
sheet metal and plaster of paris, most of which have neither 
beauty, sense or meaning. These classic heros and demigods are 
not to be condemned, but should be relegated to the only place 
to ahich they are suited,.the realm of purely decorative art, 
the interiors of apartments, for humourous purposes, and lastly 
to the minor arts. 

As we may have seen, the base of the column was considered a 
base stone, a cushion or a seat, to distribute the pressure of 
the column ant its load over as large an area of the foundation 
as possible. Scarcely any other architectural form has become 
so firmly naturalized and found such wide acceptance as the 
Attic-Ionic base (Fig. 179)» it has always been employed since 
the most flourishing Creek period until our era, although with 
many modifications, and the same decorative motive recurs in 
every style, that of treating its convex torus as a soft and 
yielding cushion, a ron of leaves br a twisted rope, which ap- 
pears to retain the foot of the column in place. The scotia t 
that separates the two tori, if properly ornamented, is prefer- 
ably ornamented by a row of slender leaves. — 

In the preceding we have briefly considered the treatment of 
the column according to the ideas of different nations,and in 
accordance with the problems to which it was applied, as well 
as its connection with other architectural members. We have to 
return to the point last named,as supplementary, before taking 
up the different kinds of columns. The problems for which col- 
umns are employed are generally works of architecture, art in- 
dustry or the minor arts, the first requires the function of 
support to be strongly expressed, but in the two last this re- 
cedes behind other functions. The classic styles introduced 
in their orders not only different style tendencies but also 
tones, so to speak, which correspond to the character of a 
particular building as well as to its different stories, to 
that of manly strength and dignity in the Doric style, that 


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119 
of grace and serenity in the Ionic, and of magnificence in the 
Corinthian. 

In accordance with these tones the function of support is 
more or less strongly expressed in different kinds of columns, 
so that the character of the treatment of the general mass of 
a building passes from the grave to the graceful and then to 
the rich. The conception that the column is to support or ele- 
rate an object, the function of bearing then receding into the 
background, is most strongly expressed in the classic memorial 
columns and in the rows of columns placed tefore facades bp the 
Roman and Renaissance architects, and which were crowned by s 
statues, so that one might well say of these columns that they 
bore nothing; but to cast them aside for that reason would be 
to overlook one of their most important functions, and to for- 
get that a large number of Crecian memorial columns would no ; 
less be condemned, than many works of Roman and Renaissance. 

Memorial columns would likewise have a freer range of form 
for the reason that being monuments, the function of bearing 
falls into the background, and since the possibility of ascen- 
ding to the top of the capital by a winding stairway becomes 
a principal aim, in a second degree a spiral arrangement of 
such a column would not only be sensible but indeed becomes 
requisite, as a ground motive of the manifold structural and 
decorative compositions that may be derived from it. The idea 
of a memorial column may thas be developed from the simple 
funereal monument to the formal tower through an inexhaustiple 
series of possible solutions. 7 

We shall treat of the column in connection with other archi- 
tectural details in the Chapter discussing the arrangements of 
columns and piers in combination with entablatures and vaults. 

be Columns in detail. 

In regard to thi’ treatment of the separate parts of columns, 
especially of capitals and forms of shafts and bases, reflect- 
ions of many kinds may be made on the hypothesis that the clas- 
sic orders are not accepted as something consecrated by tradi- 
tion and without criticism as we once did, but that the entire 
progress of architecture since the classic period, as well as 
that due to the middle ages and the Renaissance te taken as 
the starting point or basis of these considerations. 


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120 
“a. Form of the capital. 

The most primitive treatment of the capital of the oldest s 
styles already divided the capital into three parts, the bell, 
by which we understand in general the concave or convex princ- 
ipal portion of the capital, whether in the form of the Doric. 
echinus or the Corinthian bell, the necking and the abacus. 

The principal portion of the Doric capital (Fig. 180) consists 
of the strongly projecting echinus, which well established name 
we retain as a distinction from other cymas, and this echinus 
is separated from the shaft of the column by several annulets, 
or rather the row of leaves painted on the echinus, and which 
only form a continuation of the flutes as it were, and is clo- 
sely encircled by these annulets at its beginning like a collar. 
(BStticher has made the number of the leaves equal to that of 
the flutes in his restoration of the painting of the Doric cap- 
ital, so that as in the Esyptian compound capital the Doric 
Capital and column become a bundle of separate plant stems bo- 
und together below the buds). The abacus is square and the cir- 
cumference of the echinus is inscribed within it (Fig. 181). 

The breadth of the architrave exceeds the upper diameter of the 
column on which it rests, but is less than the width of the ab- 
acus, so that the latter and the echinus are in part not loaded. 
(Fig. 182). The architrave does not lie directly on the abacus 
but only apparently, since an imperceptibly raised central por- 
tion is left to receive the architrave, so that the angles of 
the capital are not loaded (Fig.183). 

Some capitals like those of the temple at Paestum have a sec- 
ond row of leaves beneath the neck bands, whose points are sl- 
ightly recurved. If the architrave were laid directly on the 
abacus, the capital would be unsymettrically loaded, and the 
excessively projecting angles of the abacus would run some 
risk of being broken off. 

The Roman Doric capitals, which were perhaps imitated from 
late Grecian examples no longer existing, more freely repres- 
ent the ground idea of the Grecian Doric archaic capital, ret- 
aining the adopted motive though without strictly adhering to 
its form, and vary the theme in manifold ways, the Renaissance 
followed this Roman mode of treatment, sometimes mixing forms 
resmebling Ionic and Corinthian with the Doric. 


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edad fre begnedo et Iadiqes edd Yo tetoansdo sat td 1899 
to teoqnr ne svieost of betqyebs yIno ,bseestqmoo tesqge 
ef yd tdztn asus: edt to eslans sdT .mtot [anogyfor ares 


ee 


47 


rei 


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Peat aT 


"aaa rare ao 


121 

The first essential alteration of the Doric capital by the 
Romans consisted in lessening its projection, giving to the 
architrave a breadth only equal to the upper diameter of the 
column; consequently the echinus became of smaller importance, 
so that its section approximated a quadrant, and the smaller 
projection of the capital required compensation in its increa- 
sed height or that of its necking, so that the mass of the cap- 
ital should not be dimnished too much in proportion to the col- 
umne The neck was then separated from the shaft of the colunm 
bya bolder member, an astragal with a small fillet or a pearl 
bead, and was decorated by rosettes, palms, etc., and the aba- 
Cus was ornamented by a row of leaves or a cyma. Besides the 
normal capital, two other very fine forms of capitals have re- 
mained to us, one from Pompeii and the other from the baths of 
Diocletian (Fig. 184); the necking of the first is a flat cur- 
ve, while the cyma of the other is not formed like an echinus, 
but is composed of vertical leaves. Several kinds of capitals 
may be formed of a combination of forms taken from different 
capitals with the aid of two rows of leaves, which are suited 
to the most diverse problems bu their greater or lesser height, 
but which lie within the limits of the motive established bp 
the Roman Doric capital. 

The Tuscan capital (Fig. 185) restored in accordance with t 
the statements of Vitruvius is nothing more than a simplified 
Roman Doric form, just as the entire Tuscan order is merely a 
reduction of a classic columnar order to the most indispensable 
motives. This order was much used in the early Renaissance as 
better harmonizing with rusticated masonry, and in combination 
with that it is especially adapted to fortifications and engin- 
eering structures, city gates, barracks, and in general to mas- 
sive structures for ordinary purposes. 

The abacus of the Dorci capital projects at its angles cons- 
iderably beyond the echinus, so that its underside becomes vis—- 
ible; the Romans decorated this lower surface by recesses but 
thereby weakened the angles already in danger of breaking under 
the load. If the abacus were made octagonal these angles disac 
pear, but the character of the capital is changed and it would 
appear compressed, only adapted to receive an impost of the s 
same polygonal form. The angles of the abacus might by lessened 


j 


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7 ; » ii i 


Sst 
ea% of LIsnps: auntior sdt to neteme th gat Babian yd 
st to epbe edt gaifitot oa tad vauoeda edt to d2eq. 19990 
id soemgotto od biuow sbtecrebn0 stenpe ati ted? eqor 
gai neat anoeds adT .2ogpdioe sat Yo soneistenogio 
199 Yo tefaritedo edt esmuaee fae doold |Ynirsvoo & Bf jet. 
i mw edt <(882 .RI%) beol eft atest dotdn no sroggue 
Bt90 ett mort yateasq Innozstoo ed nedt teum troqqua sist 
We sdf to amzol seeds [fA .qot te atot stenpa & otnt 
‘er Latiqes edd seso nt yilstoeqes.gninsenm tiedt 
[q at enem baotd #8 nedy .nedors 10 atluev evisos 
t to sot qilstosqes ak eidt :droqqee nidt yllsenotsiog 
ft “i » ,atinev gnttrogqea enmoloo mort to bas siotoods 
‘enosd. vadt to sefajns sd? Baidtroqgue sot aneom oro yllenit 
t ae Sit ao avitom ovite1oosb emo aniyolqnms ni atetenco 
est [tt of ,sonseatened ont to tnsbeosxg edt waste 
: 199 edt -;ec0sde edt to eslane edt hae eunidos edt neon 
b nem bas efamtas to abeod [fama seoqivg sidd tot boas 
c [t*to abnsiteh ,eatqoounmoo to antdgfobh yd Istiqeo oat 
‘edt Yo cen 90% of Bnibroose ,.9ts ,natolov edi ftgaelo 
Paper: « » -betarooeb yidot1 exsl 10 ston geuntosata at 
019" eysnte taomf{[e eintostidors sonseatansd boa nanon 
beds effa> asdott+89) eevee! Ilse to wor s yd enogds 
“atte vn sttib nt betaay ar anpada edt to slitor. sat <(amyo 
i “dotdn .bortess mokdoeters edt of anthrooes,(V8l .3i7) 
ER {eotrtemes3 sav mort ylottini edfone1 saso 
abe as eettestecanns beditoempotto Sne beditoent dtiw efor 
ad ayed evosds ant to: nortoeio1g ¢ brovs of berresb et 
< r 10 ~seogisy fsioege a tot Latiqeo ent Yo ean Sdt .eunt 
Bpieezoc eit shioeh {fiw betuoexs ef tk potow at Leiret 
ain elttorg talsottreg yns sonie ,avosds sft tot slit 
etotosiedo tetinosg « Iatigeo 
Liao sd¢ mort ennidos edt statsqee tad? atelonne sal 
ai ade ni atostidoye sonseetanch yd beteeit asddis 
[feotel. Yo oitsedd, edt mort [etiqeo sit to tnebscety edd 
ate! it, Gtin Wespettes ,elegetten bebeed es so ,etellit ofqaie 
a bey ook $(BBE BET) tsxomap@ yd anyo nsides{ 8 sa nave ous 
fe 2a svaoned 10 tikreite ed ysm aneloo ent to doar eat 
eii{ sevsef Yo wor bnoose. 6. otni begnsdo ed qo ,betets 
ines tdginrte Stel ed gem ft yllentt to ,moteoe? mort Leti 


122 
by making the diameter of the echinus equal to the side of the 
upper part of the abacus, but so profiling the edge of the ab- 
acus that its square under:side would be circumscribed by the 
circumference of the echinus. The abacus then loses its mean- 
ing as a covering block and assumes the character of a peculiar 
support on which rests the load (Fig. 186); the underside of 
this support must then be octagonal passing from the octagon 
into a square form at top. All these forms of the abacus have 
their meaning, especially in case the capital is intended to 
receive vaults or arches, shen a broad mass is placed on apro- 
portionally thin support; this is especially true of iron arch- 
itecture and of iron columns supporting vaults. 

finally one means for supporting the angles of the abacus 
consists in employing some decorative motive on the capital a 
after the precedent of the Renaissance, to fill the space bet- 
ween the echinus and the angles of the abacus; the Renaissance 
used for this purpose small heads of animals and men, decorated 
the capital by dolphins or cornucopias, garlands of floners or 
clasp-like volutes, etc., according to the use of the capital 
in structures more or less richly decorated. 

Roman and Renaissance architecture almost always crowned the 
abacus by a row of small leaves (R8tticher calls this a lesbian 
cyma); tbe profile of the abacus is varied in different ways,, 
(Fig. 187),according to the ¢rogjectiion desired, which in this 
case results intirely from the geometrical construction of a 
circle with inscribed and circumscribed squares, in which it 
is desired to avoid a projection of the abacus beyond the ech- 
inus; thé use of the capital for a special purpose, or the ma- 
terial in which it is executed will decide the choice of a pro- 
file for the abacus, since any particular profile gives to the 
capital a peculiar character. 

The annulets that separate the echinus from the necking were 
either treated by Renaissance architects in accordance with t 
the precedent of the capital from the theatre of Marcellus as 
simple fillets, or as beaded astragals, astragals with fillets, 
and even as a lesbian cyma by Seamozzi (Pig. 188). 

The neck of the column may be straight or concave as already 
stated, op be changed into a second roa of leaves like the cap- 
ital from Paestum, or finally it may be left straight and dec- 


est | 
i bas memod nt isovesl misq 10 vetdencr yd betetoost 
| stag elie eqaule teonle et ti sintostinore 
bestent ,Jo(f{tt Bae [egaites ae ys TMeeti nawloo eat 
iain of Bntbtooos booubottat Sd yen egnibfiom tsite 
> (Q8f .52%) woge ofbhin edttmh eobt sttaovst 
nk beqoleveh ed yam Lettqas oktod sit to eebt sat 
Istsnok sat bas , dave event sw ae aye satevid 
f .notdareqeng bas fettetem ,seoqiaq bas mtot yntnreonos 
tt tbom ‘“tedt Snes ettot ssed% situps: .eote ,aberea baer 
b 8 S809 tot beeliveb sien atebi1o aenmuloo oLeeslo oat 
o betloay dtiw benidwo> eisw saedt nedw swoitsmmtenod 
‘Bonstnevnoons smoasidnott yrov & ,eneamoh edt yd cor 
s one bas etoe: m& YI befosnnos stew anmolon sat YI .ydei68edt 
. 7 N ovatdidots edt .eidd svode saovor nwomdd e196" eetote 
‘si ‘betsino wax si Fk pYrsRaedoMAD SmADSd of baa bebe! 
sad ,eé{sw od? no benteter tnd Qntbl fod & to toi 
¢ nase senate thdtte s19w estore ect syieos1 of babast 
$ betinpse Work sdf 16 (OCI .2f7) ellaw sitt of badoed 
icing Qnteesiqnn bseeseaog efnsweknaite dtod sberlr | 
b yloitd © nO Ir etostitiows someeetenesh baa sanod 
pats evode autos ly Yo Jedd \tnatbeqxs aninssmng mawodst 
iistoe 10 vnatg at S%agpe svAirtidore edt to taeaanr & 
‘Dns osekt? ett diiw esotveldetoe stsqmoo edt to tia 
Witows sit Yo toofd w dona tadd Joat eat sort sbies 
of oat ous tupfoo' sit sedn .gntnsem toodttw et ersteldstne 
} geen ati yllenozsib bewetv ete atluev sot to t1sq 
cia iavhaelnts eidd Sas ,g0fteeelgnn bare yvsen ,l[utsoare 
bteoets sat to et [atiqeo edd ti tnseeelane sion Iiite 
o tessf{ edt at Isttqac) towed aatoe > an? saqyt neta? 
esa asiogioe apntdoe Snowte bas sattfostow ysbrn esi 
bbto S100 matoenD oft to yttrsvee sds tod :easm baord 
edt nadt foold expteldatns edt of beeogge ylbebroeb 
ps m- Stgfostidows Aemok to antot tre 
y edt no ieiranest etinay bane gedote Yo etaoqat edt baol oT 
paphtaarne ban neiderady cites at snob asmttomce ae elets 
Saom atesqqe ,ewolle setwedt! siufoetiidorws sishsom ford 
a. ed? To esseew AT canmefoo sett to seeo nt yfdeto 
fottersy91q Ottearene ne attupss eteoqmt sit mot? basegn grt 
an em THAto on nomi eafyte Somanetansd bos oteesio edt dtod bre 


pce a 
ste wen 


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123 | 
decorated by rosettes or palm leaves; in Roman and Renaissance 
architecture it is almost always separated from the shaft of 
the column itself by an astragal and fillet, instead of which 
other mouldings may be introduced according to circumstances, 

a favorite idea dn*the middle ages (Fig. 189). 

The idea of the Doric capital may be developed in the most 
diverse ways as we have proved, and the general ground laws 
concerning form and purpose, material and preparation, light 
and shade, etca, require these forms and their modifications. 

The classic columnar orders were devised for post and lintel 
tonstmictiou; when these were combined with vaulted construct- 
ion by the Romans, a very troublesome anconvenience #as caused 
thereby. If the columns were connected by an architrave and a 
arches were thrown across above this, the architrave was not 
loaded and so became unnecessary; it it was omitted in the in- 
terior of a building but retained on the walts, the columns in- 
tended to receive tre arches were either higher than those ate 
tached to the walls (Fig. 190), or the arch sequired. to be st- 
ilted; both arrangements possessed unpleasing peculiarities. | 

Roman and Renaissance architects hit on 4a truly consistent 
though unmeaning expedient, that of placing above the capital 
a fragment of the architrave square in plan, or sometimes a 
part of the compete entablature with its frieze and cornice. 
Aside from the fact that such a block of the architrave or 
entablature is without meaning, when the column and the lower 
part of the vaults are viewed diagonally its mass appears un- 
graceful, heavy and unpleasing, and this impression becomes 
still more unpleasant if the capital is of the graceful Corin- 
thian type. The Grecian Dorci capital is the least ungraceful, 
its widely projecting and strong echinus supports wery well a 
broad mass; but the severity of the Crecian Doric order is more 
decidedly opposed to the entablature block, than the more pli- 
ant forms of Roman architecture. 

To load the imposts of arches and vaults directly on the cap- 
itals as sometimes done in early Ghristian architecture , and 
abich modern architecture likewise allows, appears most unfav- 
orably in case of free columns. The masses of the vault widen- 
ing upward from the imposts require an energetic preparation, 
and both the classic and Renaissance styles know no other means 


er” SS | 
| - sioots stwitsldetns Siswins off yd asdt .erdt 3atntetdo to 

trae i ytinesosn Yo setity & sham siwiostisor saitnesys 
eb nei beifesh eft to Aimetyq stsup2 bedsevat as 3nt 
etwoiti ,tisav sit to J1sq sewol ent bas [etiqso sat 
seved doold ylgo aidd ot teY .m10t nk yvaed yi9v ti 
nbottnt esx svitom s ,noktaioceh tesdort edt yd {wise 
Rs ga e ef tk ;yew weadtone at beqoleveb Batted to eld 
we east mec dotda ,tfneav sd? Bas [atigeo sd? asonted be 
Hieoe1 yen bas ,evaitidow edt to amtot edt mort seat vlort 

” sidong [atpege sat atin. sonebiocoe nt mot tnerettsb « 
nents ot Rarbi0ooA .beyofgqmetsas se0fg%s Bas sasnloo sat aos 
aad: | troqque seliemea to 19398! #& sentivpss tlesv to dow edt 
" detent Iftw troqqea sift .{etiges sat das motd10q sswol est 
‘ota ac o98 to soome7sttib erodm .arsyel [sieves 10 sao™to 
se add to somstettib sdv adie sonebiocos nit beznetta 9d 
G Bntasely taom edt bos ,teoqui eat bne amuloo sid to 
) a eReeesm edt to 

mo tten 8 0 aatant to wot & yd benwots od ysa troqqua sat 
cE Big #8 es betacis sé yam bas ,ytotiqoyq taetvse1g sat adiv 
“OO 670095 .sitnemanio ,asttenoi ditn ,svaonoo ,telt ed x00 
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9% B® edd of omofoo fasoz git mort noltrensat 949 10% ago 
wat as Yo g1sq od? yalq yew Ft totad at ,do0ld teoqat 
plavestbel .(fCL .3ft).yan botiev Jeom edd ai trogqas 
ND ipwintas eitf~foote atdt bo sau tesdoty edt shan 5% 
ath fo seed oat jnteis to been edd détw somshiooos nt g30 
eeaitonce sonseetensh nemte> bas donet? edt asvi .ansloo 10 
stuteldetns oteaslo sft bseofaws 10 .t109qua aidt beonbosd 
eovyaitidots sdt .to noteeimo sdt yd beanado ,doo 

. sor ‘os to allen sat mo antemet evertidors to mict a tI 
*thon sds ted? faoebive ef ti -,asoaly vadto nt oats bae 
Shieyeuve ci ti tod iywseeeosans at t1ozgue to wr10t sid? 
iam 849 toennco of es of anmsloo sd3 no aedots sat soalg of 
¥ edt sved of bes ,Letigso eat to tadt atin tecqat sat to 
tonto Trogqae edT .onots.to garneo nol efgnte 6 to tetezoo 
Bee ee bedonsss enmaloo tad ,eomuloo hefywoo to 9ano ni bets imo 
| ® to mot riedd ntetes of beeq [Lew ont mort gnitostorg 
‘sk ered? tot betiimo ton 93 nmufog Segegne ent eaeo ni ov 
das as bas sotmi0o medoid & meonted sometsttib laitnsess 


= 
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124 
of obtaining this, than by the awkward entablature block. 

Byzantine architecture made a virtne of necessity by insert- 
ing an inverted square pyramid of the desired height between 
the capital and the lower part of the vault, likewise making 
it very heavy in form. Yet in this ugly tlock never made bean- 
tifal by the richest decoration, a motive was introduced capa- 
ble of being developed in another way; it is a support insert- 
ed between the capital and the vault, which can itself be ent- 
irely free from the forms of the architrave, and may receive 
a different form in accordance with the special problem in #h- 
ich the columns and arches°are employed. According to whether 
the arch or vault requires a larger or smaller support between 
its lower portion and the capital, this support will consist 
of’ one or several layers, whose differences of section are to 
be arranged in accordance with the difference of the sections 
of the column and the impost, and the most pleasing proportion 
of the masses. 

The support may be crowned by a row of leaves or a cymatium 
with the greatest propriety, and may be treated as a plain bl- 
ock, be flat, concave, with rosettes, ornaments, decorated nec- 
king, etc., or lastly be treated as a swelled cushion, and it 
can form the transition from the round column to the square 
impost block, in brief it may play the part of an intermediate 
support in the most varied way.(Fig. 191). Mediaeval architec- 
ure made the richest use od this stool-like intermediate supp- 
ort in accordance with the need of raising the base of the pier 
or column. Even the French and Cerman Renaissance sometimes in- 
troduced this support, or employed the classic entablature bl- 
ock, changed by the omission of the architrave. 

Tf a form of architrave remains on the walls of the interior, 
and also in other places, it is evident that the addition of 
this form of support is unnecessary; but it is avwaysidésirable 
to place the arches on the columns so as to connect the mass 
of the impost with that of the capital, and to have the support 
consist of a single low course of stone. The support cannot be 
omitted in case of coupled columns, but columns attached to and 
projecting from the wall need to retain their form of architra- 
ve in case the engased column re not omitted, for there is an 
essential difference between a broken cornice and an entablature 


ie a) 


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stds [1a to eiiqe anit oftod asioe1) eat to fads ea sinoedo 
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on ‘ re ; ae 


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125 
block in the classic style. For clustered wall culmns the bro- 
en cornice always has an effect as a mass, less unpleasant than 
the entablature block over detached columns; if the columns and 
Capitals are entirely free from the walls, with a broken corn- 
ice seen in the most unpleasing way, i.e., viewed diagonally, 
the mass resting on the capital will still be less, than in 
case of a column standing entirely free on all sides; this mass 
may properly be lessened by not allowing the geison with its 
crown moulding or cyma to project more than is absolutely nec- 
essaryat the places where the architrave and frieze are broken, 
while it may project elsewhere as much as may be required (Fig. 
192); for its chief purpose is to protect the building from the 
rain water running downward, and its protection cannot be rec- 
eived by a column detached from the walls, unless the geison } 
projects on all side like an umbrella, which would be very ugly. 
In drawing columns with the masses supported by them, it is ab- 
solutely necessary to represent the object from the most unfa- 
vorable point of view, or to draw a diagonal view in order to 
decide on the projections and divisions of the mass by the pl- 
easing effect of the proportions to te obtained, as well as in 
all objects in which one form of section passes into another, 
for example a circle into a skuare; perspective drawing is not 
alone sufficient to give a proper idea of these proportions. 
This is especially true in case not only the effect of the mass, 
but also that of the outlines is to be considered, as in monu- 
ments, memorial columns, church towers, etc., since it then be- 
comes necessary to draw a view parallel to the diagonal of the 
octagon e f (Fig. 193), as well as a front view a b and a dia- 
gonal one c 4, in case a transition occurs from the square to 
the octagon. 

The two-sided Tonic capital, whose mode of origin remains as 
obscure as that of the Grecian Doric in spite of all acute re- 
searches, differs in principle from the Roman Doric capital, 
strictly speaking, only in that the characteristic volute cush- 
ion is inserted between the abacus and the echinus. The propor- 
tions of the different parts are evidently different in the Tf 
Tonic capital from those of the Roman Doric, and the individual 
motives likewise have forms differing from those of the latter, 
yet the ground ideas are the same with forms only approximately 


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+ 5 ads nl -esves{ mieqg yd belfrt somiienos o%6 (zatbicom 
“tant qe. stefquoo. ont tod stem astulov oat alatiqes [otttuacd 
padddoead. od¢.to encidacs beldyob sit nt ysys sdf Savors enw 
ae stg Bf svitom edt to, atsot{[qch gntersig yisv jon 46 m0 
de. 0! foqA to. ofquad edt mort Ietiqso sdT -sotdeno eldgob edd 
E 20k fend eed ti 10t ,earesn Sfotont «mi [emnonde ai seacet 
feo trev yi betqsoon gated settaso atedt ,esbta tot Ife 
. i opavest 

. ago dd bae sesod edd yi bexolfot. eten alatiqeo sigs s0T 
87 BS e8 soideso oft teent bre ,atostidowe sonseaiened eds yd 
peat, te rolotn? on .pnols egbs tage sti no tebted e atin based 
es: eomooed) yiensdt [atiqeo odt. ;sebie edd 3a neat albbin 
Sdt tod ,pseeo ynea nt elderteeb si yam dotdw .elodw ae ee 


aT a4 
’ 


e Me yh 


(ted ON 


vy ; 
“fT He 
A 
’ ) i 


126 
Similar. The prototype of both capitals appears to be traced 
to a column originating in the island of Samos, whose capital 
shows the Roman echinus decorated by leaves, but without the 
Ionic volutes. (fhipiez. Hist. Crit. des Ordres Crecs, p3266). 
The abacus of the Ionic capital merely consists of an Ionic 
cymatium (erroneously termed egg-and-dart moulding) or a lesb- 
ian cyma, the necking of the column is omitted or is decorated 
like that od the Roman Doric capital with palm leaves, rosettes 
and similar ornamental forms, according as the capital requir- 
es a lesser or greater Reight. The cushion is treated in vari- 
ous ways; these are referred first to the front view of the | 
volutes with their eyes, then to the side vie:r The Roman and 
‘ Renaissance architects really understood how to make the form 
of the Ionic capital beautiful, although one must admit, that 
the Renaissance strained every nerve at least to perfect the 
proportions od its Ionic papitals. The reason of this lies in 
the fact that neither the Roman nor the Renaissance masters 
were acquainted with the more perfect Creciau Ionic capitals. 
In the most beautiful Ionic capitals, for example those of the 
Propyleum at Eleusis, the cushion is highest at its middle, a 
and its section diminishes: toward the eyes of the volutes; its 
front surface is flat with an enclosing border. 

On other capitals as in those at Fleusis, the falt surface 
is treated as a hollow, and on the capitals of the Erechtheum 
at Athens the entire cushion is treated like two bands placed 
over each other, and hollowed out on the front surface. The 
angles between the cushion and the Ionic cyma (egg-and-dart 
moulding) are sometimes filled by palm leaves. In the more 
beautiful capitals the volutes make but two complete spiral t 
turns around the eye; in the doubled cushions of the Erechthe- 
um a not very pleasing duplicate of the motive is produced by 
the double cushion. The capital from the temple of Apollo at 
Rassae is abnormal in a twofold sense, for it has cushions on 
all four sides, their centres being occupied by vertical palm 
leaves. 

The: later capitals were followed by the Roman and through 
by the Renaissance architects, and treat the cushion as &@ mere 
band with a border on its upper edge alone, no thicker at the 
middle than at the sides; the capital thereby becomes lower 
as a whole, which may be desirable in many cases, but the cush— 


: ie ¥ ty A 
re hi { ya we é a "s Pas) 
4 ae et wee, cesee 


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ery 
tat 
| 


eer + atti AOC att peeol notiews 
aa 4 e{daob & BA noknena dy aniteeit yI yrertnoo |Add nO 

yes py etofov sd? .sqose ert antved otolov sit to anand edt 
0 J Bnttoen a tedt of .fgin eemooed [etigeo stitns ont ef 
Se: af edt ates tisde edt mort ti otatsqee oF yIsA25098 
‘ena aemttomoe atoetidois sonstestensd edT .ensataA fe 


y ott aveay Ons atgonsand endinsos yd [stiqso edd to soet 


val soetniacs y{[no yfinebave ov betete sited etost sat 
ed threes ut ayarts taom elatiqso edt to tnemtsen1d bel reser 
bape sh10 tanmafoo ofeesdo eit to ybote [uterso © no fsasd 
_ -,eea5t wen to nottetsdtenco Inteiso feom sit eotrope7 
Batt Ye as demr0l ayen{e at notdano oft to wetv ebte eaT 
6 ylse1t ste aetofov edt tad baed # yo asdtezos banod 
it yneqmooon eanttenoe ebeed I[re9q [etsven .asbie dtoad ne 
edt ‘Ro sbfeced?,,.nusitioe:h oft to alaetiqes eft mo es, basd 
fie mo tsonsf sitf-sfeon yt fotsvoory!istenss ef oof 
(oer sRfT) .Anow footoe sort yt befetoosh neve ei 10 , ee 
bp wOT Siduob & dtiw efetiqes asidt¢ntio? tesblo sct Yo snd 
wi aupe s Rad neve ,ebaty edt to r9Kot ett to fads ,zoveo! 


s eteuDe ed? .affotoe 10 sevacl ys nooeds sot to eslnra edt 
ot [uteoary sit of nottxogo1g at tostts as yvsed cot esd eno 
Bw as0T beytoo ylsdgiie 2 stcteted? hae fetiqes sit to eyes 
safe Doe eutolti ta offoqA+to fq 1p! edt to tadd ot mevib 
yi0o! ett? yd heoubo tq size" esfrnae strpos yiev sonte sod 
 Yedt of tito tio eten sasdd ,bec! sdt ys *to asdowd yireas 
m) gobie Sevitno dtin mefo biwory ar etsupe 2 bemrot anceds 
isfq mi toetorq tom ob asveel afsq te erenolt entnaso ent 

nr pltannapenns ot tom e& of .eteape edd to asfrne sit baoy 


aah 


Zentno eevino sabe att ,acoads sat yd hatevoo sd ot al 19 
ot owt oaedT «(GCI .BrF) sitmeo odd base eolaaa sit dtod 
-sdt to slattqaoredt no bsyolqwe terrt sisw evoeda ont 


omg edT .eienelS mont [etiqeo etna as no has setersisy] to. 


Si ylgnoiwte to yltdatie « entamet suoeds netdtatzo? eat to 
‘et bne Sindostido1 sonserisnsh fae nemoq ,naioes) at dele 
it modereqse tedt [apeates e472 ;mottemyo Ormol sid yd hemwors 
> edt atin solyte seedt [fe nt entanet ttade sdt mont fetiges 


Rea .2ettesot to mot ont 


sqqne ot td3moe hetste ybeotia es elstiqeo tete)el eds (eno. 


aide edt YT .Sextupet doofd' ed? to snotenemib edt seses: 


127 
‘cushion loses its distinctive character. 

On the contrary by treating the cushion as a double band, 
the turns of the volute having free scope, the volute as well 
as the entire capital becomes high, so that a necking becomes 
necessary to separate it from the shaft as in the Hrechtheum 
at Athens. The Renaissance architects sometimes decorated the 
face of the capital by acanthus ornaments and gave the eyes +, 
the form of rosettes. 

The facts here stated are evédently only reminiscences. the 
detailed treatment of the capitals must always iu: reality be 
based on a careful study of the chassic columnar orders, and 
requires the most careful consideration of new idéas. 

The side view of the cushion is always formed as if firmly 
bound together by a band, but the volutes are freely developed 
on both sides. several pearl beads sometimes accompany this 
band,as on the capitals of the Erechtheum, thesside of the cush- 
ion is generallyscovered by scale-like lancet or acanthus lea- . 
ves, or is even decorated by free scrool work. (Fig. 194). 

One of the oldest Corinthian capitals with a double row of 
leaves, that of the tower of the winds, even has a square aba- 
cus; the later capitals as already stated sought to support ; 
the angles of the abacus by leaves or scrolls. The square aba- 
cus has too heavy an effect in proportion to the graceful fol- 
iage of the capital, and therefore a slightly curved form was” 
Siven to that of the tample of. Apollo at Miletus and elsewhere; 
but since very acute angles were produced by this curvature, 
easily troken off by the load, these were cut off so that the 
abacus formed a square in grourd plan with curved sides (Fig.195). 

The centre flowers of palm leaves do not project in plan be- 
yond the angles of the square, so as not to unneeessarily inc- 
rease the dimensions of the block required. If the centre flon- | 
er is to be covered by the abacus, its edge curves outward at 

both the angles and the centre (Fig. 196). These two forms of 
| the abacus were first employed on the capitals of the monument 
of Lysicrates and on an ante capital from FHleusis. The profile 
of the Corinthian abacus remains a slightly or strongly coved 
slab in Grecian, Roman and Renaissance architecture, and 1s 
croaned by the Ionic cymatium; the astragal that separates the 
capital from the shaft remains in all these styles with the 


ad Fi! P r ( 
pa eet a ae 1 


aod af i ' 


: edt atin betoonnos Lezsitas bebsed to nisly s to 30k 
ee at soceds eid? .svoo to miot motdianat s bane sellit s 
minagt 5 YJ aefqmexe nasoh sedoty sdt at bats10ceb een 
7 i; ebegiq bsiles~-oe edt ,anvesl Laokitiey etera: dae 
I 2. 4% 8 beoubowtnt somseaisned odd ,bstete yheorla eas 
stedd s8d3 otom nave dotdw ,natdtatio> sitl [atiaso to 
“bemsotenstt asx tedt bas .tetoatsdo svitsicosb ylarng 
Bn | bfotinsm teom sit dtin 10008 of sys barisv abi 
eat ‘ yew yas ab Antdton saob eed sintoetidors Lavoetis!! 
Wok goigtontss netddatrod eat no [atiqes sdt to tnsatecsd 
~eoaed ynen ck [nttqeo edt mod anoeds odd Estarsgee 
mn and sew [stiqeo edt to [isd eft sonte .amoases Laoitoazy 
| Se -eodt to tedt enn agosds odd sf{ide ,totginoe edd to 
init een tioeti {[Ied edt yltnsupeanoo ;bete1099b ton node 
nt es yoveonoo 10 eisupe ,1alg°c1ro asw dordw .dale 6 ys 
pabiooos .henottnem ybsetls Istiqeos aekdtninod ea3 to BUDE 
Jedt evyods beoslg euo’da sd? .fatiqso edt to tnemegnetis edt 
feoqek edd of Setqshs 9d 10 stampa od nedt blaos Aoold Iled 
# Hipoo tt 20 .xeluotin. 10 [anoryioq eemitenoe ,dow adi 
fo asivzastoen bas ssicoito ,{sno3yfloq to beecgnoo #70% 
f baoose a bevyieoes oste [stigso nstdsntro) favsetben eat 
@asiat Yo ydtron et dotdn ,snorset [sotfosiq 10% noite 
Ey erste g, mort tdgv0 mw ton et ti eeso at -snoaer ynen 
“at owt sii Yo dora ,snote.to amsyel owt to heges ynog af 
) {fed aswof adt tedt om .dsle giad qwo efi ead asveo!l 
tdanri0d regis! ynem not eA beredmemerh dowm of 185g q9¢ 
e@ietraso oF 
et: euoeds ont ‘Aeeetoreh yltnenoett etetostidows oidtod 
nid s es .gntbeosiq sat ni hetete elziontig edt Atiw soneds 
teeth edt batded tet o& toe ean sasd seotn ,troggua to 
feds Yo nottoetoig, yas biove of ss L[ettyqeo ect? to se6s¢ 
edt .nottouttan0o betivey [aweethem aI .fled sat baoyed 
motnsar0o eXif easel taeqqe [atiqes ed? to efud bas sevasl 
| nqQu S20dn to ,beol edt yd brewnnoh Sned Letrqso ant te 
t etsotbat dotdw atisq es sed} ,sooads edd? yd hesebata et aly 
dtqeo sit aieneve ,tivev edt to edi edt,to moltvosqth eas 
nee edt mort Racige eved ot msoa dotde ~eoneltsg ¢ogil es to 
isa ati to noteassgxo; y1eseo°en 8 ee seam [etmtooite osinegrc 
them ,enottos1tS owt etasoos [atiqyeo ofnol sit 22 taut 


vba 
oe 
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rit de x 


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hate ay ol are bere, Aas T @ Avil s 4 on 
el 7. lis » Gay ay! R _ Ae me bat \ Yu a ‘ y aes 1th Rieey ’ 
Fi ru > ] , Zz 4 ae De ; ‘yi a hon } 


128 
form of a plain or beaded astragal connected with the shaft by 
a fillet and a transition form or cove. This abacus is someti- 
mes decorated in the richer Roman examples by a running ornam- 
ent or by vertical leaves, the so-called pipes. 

"Ascalready stated, the Renaissance introduced a freer form 
of capital like Corinthian, which even more thar that bears a 
purely decorative character, and that was transformed in the 
most varied ways to accord with the most manifold problems. 
Yediaeval architecture has done nothing in any way for the 
treatment of the capital on the Corinthian principle; it first 
separated the abacus from the capital iit many cases, even for 
practical reasons, since the bell of the capital was the work 
of the sculptor, while the abacus was that of the stonecutter 
anen not. decorated; consequently the bell itself was finished 
by a slab, which was circular, square or concave, as in the ab- 
acus of the Corinthian capital already mentioned, according to 
the arrangement of the capital. The abacus placed above the 
bell block could then be square or be adapted to the impost of 
the arch, sometimes polygonal or circular, or it could take a 
form composed of polygonal, circular and rectangular elements. 
The mediaeval Corinthian capital also received a second innov- 
ation for practical reasons, which is worthy of imitation in 
many cases; in case it is not wrought from a single block, but 
is composed of two layers of stone, each of the two rows of 
leaves has its own bel. slab, so that the lower bell does not 
Appear so much dismembered as in many larger Corinthian class- 
ic capitals. 7 

Gothic architecture frequently developed the abacus in acco- 
rdance with the principle stated in the preceding, as a kind 
of support, whose base was set so far behind the greatest diam- 
eter of the capital as to avoid any projection of the support 
beyond the bell. In mediaewal vaulted construction, the angle? 
leaves and buds of the capital appear less like organic parts 
of the capital bent downward by the load, or whose upward gro- 
wtb is hindered by the abacus, than as parts which indicate t 
the direction of the ribs of the vault, even in the capital, o 
or as light garlands, which seem to have sprung from the fully 
organized structural mass as a necessary expression of its nature. 

Just as the Ionic capital accents two directions, mediaeval 


Rien sn ; Las eal ah abe a ; 
: Ly a aria 

oe edaos baquot’l to. ovtvon sit beowbortat etptoed roots 

tegen 8 dSetioqies ets dothw bas .mottoorkh edt oie 

ne seed ms. ,troqqua eat mozt yltoetth geivqe 10 leti 


ton bre ,eadote favevse to foofd antantvae att do sant 


ee. 
nade wf 


be} 


oe ‘yqqad atdt qo doot abtswtett sonseatensa eaT .(8Or 
somebre: 08 nt yew Inteon1g teow edt at ti hetsort senttence 
- gowas. endtnsos .abseH .salgtonttq evitsi0esb ofeeato atin 
tfag ‘ed yam enoti{tbom oteeaelo wort bsworted enrol tsdJso 
’ tooeteg yleviteroosh baa .etnewenio 88 emtot [edroo douse 
a | | BOTTI Ihe 
efteda sit to mrof .§ 
ateors belteteh oft ot braget nt thotf[gxe od aso si 
$nt eved events annuloo ot100 inmeloo edt to ttene ont 
of. fe betsninist .notiose nf exgtaviwo welt to aetelt 
ofnol Yo eetelt sdt sltdw ,yen ofdsetion yas nit mot 


ebivtd af nuofoo sft YI .eeveel bevisoces vitngil to wot wv nt 
ry baad baoid s yd snob isdtte et atdt ,btdds <cowol ati nt 
| o agntbioon [fave yi ttade sav of betoeanos sd of eresgqe 
"eeso! te1tt edd ni tanthisom aefuens Blod s xd 10,aaghe 
“dl efexzsttes isdisde .aanthfnom [lana edt to enorioat 
pb rsKol eds Snoysd Sastixs ton Sloode ,atelirt dttw absod 
old toons edt of botios’ sd ct ge oe ,nauloo sit to 19 
Bikes sgatscu0n talpane Bnivoetow ylpnotwte basa ysadio edt 
wot efit vedd yiirkre .sivtostinors [evesibom nf aniot 
+ mont t4gno7% ete yaddy nmeaiw ,ee0eig sstd? Yo beaognoo 
in jeantdfoom sefonna done to gelttorg sd? .enote Yo atoold 
‘et ttede edt to gntiiewe [ntrswog 5 utiroetss of maee 
enottsv at bemzot sd yan ,fvgneite Sane selsqat awo ett 
fogo7y oat ,fatieter sds ,saoqizug sit avin sonebtoooe ct 
> a0? eit tevetedw ;(OCL .Ri7) bebnetat mottetcosh eat bre 
Vs Vesenivast 10 eeenidgrit to tefosisio tc tdyted .el[rtorg 

nO rosie bne ,seonstempoiro [stooge no shnageb medt of neviz 
qeat sd yen fotdw ,noivetoosh edt to yitfenp bas tasoms odd 
at Sogo Savow eqors ,etenolt 10 esveel to not e yd besas 
“ w Sn8d 6 10 ,e9note auofoetg-inse dtiw tee fasd e» ,ameloo 
eaery of ,edne[1e2 gntoneysus tot edoeg to ebeed 
6 yd betatoceb ed yew nmofoo ent baoote boon baad baord A 
ay 


qe ent nezael coals tod enottoetrh ent steorbnt ylrssio | 


tr Bovad bas etel{it yd betersqse eyants sis enmoloo ast 
Hipidte. eeutiemoe twetitel edt bane .enotiose [sottqii{s 10 20 


129 

architecture introduced the motivo of srouped corbels to empha- 
size the direction, and which are supported by a separate cap- 
ital or spring directly from the support, can bear an entabla- 
ture of the springing block of several arches, and not only } 
clearly indicate the directions but also lessen the spans (Fig. 
198). The Renaissance fterwards took up this happy motive and 
sometimes treated it in the most graceful way in accordance 
with classic decorative principles. Heads, acanthus leaves and 
other forms borrowed from classic modillions may be applied to 
such corbel forms as ornaments, and decoratively personify th- 
eir purpose. 7 

8. Form of the shaft. 

We can be explicit in regard to the detailed treatment of t 
the shaft of the column; Doric columns always have intersecting 
flutes of flat curvature in section, terminated at top and btot- 
tom in any suitable way, while the flutes of Ionic and Corinth- 
ian columns are always separated by fillets and have semicirc- 
or or elliptical sections, and the latter sometimes end at top 
in a row of lightly recurved leaves. If the column is divided 
in its lowest thard, this is either done by a broad band, that 
appears to be tonnected to the shaft by small mouldings on its 
edges,or by a bold annular moulding: in the first case the pro- 
jections of the small mouldings, whether astragals or pearl 
beads with fillets, should not extend beyond the lower diamet- 
er of the column, so as to be suited to the. uncut blocks. On | 
the other hand strongly projecting annular mouldings, faworite 
forms in mediaeval architecture, signify that the column is 
composed of three pieces, when they are wrought from separate 
blocks of stone. The profiles of such annular mouldings, which 
seem to personify a powerful swelling of the shaft by means of 
its own impulse and strength, may be formed in various ways, 
in accordance with the purpose, the material, the proportions 
and the decoration intended (Fig. 199); whatever the form of 
profile, height or character of lightness or heaviness, xk is 
given to them depends on special circumstances, and also on 
the amount and quality of the decoration, which may be repres- 
ented by a row of leaves or flowers, a rope wound around the 
column, a band set with semi-precious stones, or 4 band with 
heads or hboks for suspending garlands, etc. 

A broad band wound around the column may be decorated by any 


ie ial 40 a me aes va 
vi 


a 3 


B ~mitow svistarooed dots ak Insmento ne ex atetteg Sned 
| ietnsmenio to sbnta [fe yi betevoo sd thaatt ttede 
Anowdss .ytteeqed wir! agniviso ,odtl-sf{eoe ,toilet 
| 29008 factfodays ons shnalyasy .anoddit bebnsqeve 10 
0% Bnthios0& .mnaloo sds Yo ausfoun sat [seonoo dot 
eyeria teox ow ynottstaenenio dott bas sett edd to yous 
pnt feteront een fokdw,somsertansd sd¢ to bis edd 
senebt svitercoeh (ntitused teow eft to dtlasw.oldi 
Ye eonsentansh namie) Hee doted .fonet? .mtenston 
emmaloo ta attsis betemo29h Uiotitueed, to ansaro 
en” earmaloo. to 2eaed oot 
tedd ei Taare est to sead eft to atot Jaslante sal 
sie a0 autot « to dtatenoo yfetem fotdx ,nsbs0 neoauT 
itive s bae déntiq edt .svtos sdt to bsedent anth{uom 
OS .btv) Ptede odd oF noktrenent ond amiot fokdw ,svoo 
tabem sven eosad asidtmizop bae ofnol~orttA asdoin 
notte asfitory Lawton es sonsaataced odt nt sevice 
P .(tos “BeT) Beoefgakh yleorsoa ed wom bluos dna agyt 
edt ni nmuloo sat tot seed 6 es seogte atedt Lit 
Sidieth cabasunte fetnemento y heteroceb ylibees sie bie 
brs ~fottiacg ett at asoloo edd to esenbsxt? sdt suse 
of ofd nt ti dtaensd beoaslg) mordego edt Yo yirrtlsup aard 
aaa eeoyeel to exot Bae enoideno ,esetbivon [lene 
‘oved 16nil’ ste’ mort eased okmol Yo eu1ot eatd sat 
j tkedt? nb swwdostidors miedtion tot conatrogqar yne 
#noret?th Soed stedto sat no ted ,emtot bas enottreg 
pitivean, Hae aoineom svsed eased sat to alktorg edd to 
” S10 mottacttifqnte ated? yo ylt1sq beqolaveb sd yar 
WenottosiLo1q tredd antdetnioth x0 antesetoni yd. gt 
} Yovelrtor adit to enotteottrbom eced? «(SOS .2t7) av 
Seado sit to sya Sit to nottieoy edt no bneqsh hye 
sys sit svods fetd hsosf{y sasaloo fofidn o¢ antbtoo 
netrotastot evitoeqe1eq tied? to tnwooos no saad Ajia 
| ‘mort bersty oedw wol od yeu send sat ytaitnoo edt m0 | 
DP yltmetsttth stinp aeeqqs ofpow (E08 .otg)e mottosrth ona 
aa » et moktoatth edt ar wofed som? asee sedis 
iinet was otto sit to euceda ent to nafnns ent as tevt 
J:garsd atedt to tegneb sovborg of ae of .enatdoe eds anadt 
af ons seented entemen soaye tasosv es ,fsol Leupsmy ne yd tte 


i ee 


130 

band pattern as an ornament in rich decorative works, and the 
shaft itself be covered by all kinds of ornamentsin color or 
relief, scale-like, carvings like tapestry, network, scrolls 

or suspended ribbons, garlands and symbolical accessories, wh- 
ich conceal the nucleus of the column. According to the tend- 
ency of the free and rich ornamentation, we must always ask t 
the aid of the Renaissance, which was fruitful in an inexhaust- 
‘ible wealth of the most beautiful decorative ideas. Even the 
northern, French, Dutch and Cerman Renaissance afford many spe- 
cimens of beautifully decorated shafts of columns. . 

y. Bases of columns. 

The simplest form of the base of the column is that of the 
Tuscan order, which merely consists of a torus or of a base 
moulding instead of the torus, the plinth and a fillet with a 
cove, which forms the transition to the shaft (Fig. 200). The 
richer Attic-ionic and Corinthian bases have maintained then- 
selves in the Renaissance as normal profiles after the Roman 
type and could now be scarcely displaced (Fig. 201). They ful- 
fil their purpose as a base for the column in the best way, 
and are readily decorated by ornamental elements, which repre- 
sent the fixedness of the column in its position, and the yiel- 
ding quality of the cushion placed beneath it in the form of 
small mouldings, ‘cushions and rows of leaves. 

The true forms of Ionic bases from Asia Minor have scarcely 
any importance for northern architecture in their peculiar pro- 
portions and forms, but on the other hand different variations 
of the profile of the base have meaning and justification and 
may be developed partly by their simplification or enrichment, 
partly by increasing or diminishing their projections and hei- 
ghts (Fig. 202). These modifications of the profile of the base 
chiefly depend on the position of the eye of the observer, ac- 
cording to which columns placed high above the eye require a 
high base on account of their perspective foreshortening, and 
on the contrary the base may be low when viewed from above in 
the direction a(pig. 203) woulc appear quite differently from 
that seen from below in the direction b. 

Just as the angles of the abacus of the Doric capital over- 
hang the echinus, so as to produce danger of their being broken 
off by an unequal load, a vacant space remains between the lo#- 


| 1 ees Pr) ee ae Ty 
etre ween | TRAD Bo ak 1 
p may i Com Peo eA Pen Geo ror ke ee me 
: i Sees At y. Pi . ' ; J fe ; c ' 


‘ae Micah layed, sy 
pene lot neron; eds nt dtoriy sds to eelans sot bre ented 
vein \ pefans aft to oatden{t sot test Iagrm eno seat of 
: Lewten yldgootodt a nt aqed seent bs{lit santoesrdow 
yeyer enorievy at meat sonbet of Sdyu0e to .seveel a9n100 
hao .fantia sit to okebe 19qq0 odf tuo gniwollon yd 16 
wee ond Yo teftensih edt anteasiont yi 10 ,selans ett Tto 
moor edt emeced sonetetanotig ett dedt ce ,por0d 
he anoftantdnes yd uiteet ao ;ftetiq espe edt to sfo. 
ta 0 Batvolfod yi es [fen es ,tnemegnetis to asbom tasistisb 
< lod ent Yo rotometh odd TI .(20k S08 .ngtT) -eelans edt 
Be p81 antot antanenirsvo eit ,dintig efit to tadd S5shesore 
— to. 12 to ([edtoo [fame 8s yd bedetatet asw doidn ,Jrogque 
deed: Yo entot sd? otnt heosboitnt sevitom [isted seaoat ILA 
o! b ffew yan ,tisg cit tesel te ,e1ntoetidow lIavesiban yx 
cong “Inentses. setiuosq & -oonesaiened sat to mmi0t eat yi be 
ps807T02 elattyso edt of Sntbnogesitco anaploo to esaad sod 
jo sen .stedte dtin nottentdmoo mt yffenogstb beos!q amo? 
m3 8 asy eyinebbes tod syifevber3s ino9oc fon of noitoer to e938 
$10 bydeted? bne etetoetidows [svertben r9otel ni strtovstY 189 
yet WIsv .seaeo ynem nt beyol{qme sd yer dotin ,aviton s bes 
¥ #0 hoor bre sqetostiaots novi ,fatem anitesos tot of 
} eamploo edt to Isteebed .4 
be $ied sonreniaced sft ti aniwollot bas ewtoetidorws nenod 
ait ttbba at estutset tsdto ynioubortar to ytiseeoen [eraten 
yolan 19q stomsd Slvote dotdw ,arshto ett te senso fenton edt 
;  yeeinota Ieteves mk agnthiicd to \qemteott sat of betqebs 
sborg dae72 edd ,teditona svoie isht0o sao soalq of hettasb sno 
-u Lon sit to aeaad edt belsaonoo etuteldatns ten0l eat to noid 
— aiew Jadd awobakn sat easdi99 .tf ao bsoaely an 
yedt fra mott ceonted [fen oft to tagted bexst 8 hestnp 
Ma sed biroo tt ,oldieiv ameloo edt Yo sasd ont eyes of 
ites wohntn edt se tdkted emse edt Yo [stacbeg stereqse & 
a od oat mesnted soot bait wed tesm qao ati adiwietdt tod .(d08 
S efod edt ttin somehrooos ak sotatos ef% to got sdf bae. 
Wteo nidsin hotiav dotin ,atebio ett to anoktrogoxg Lfemton 
d st9% seis)  tdgted sir .nmofoo edt to tetemath edt ,atinil 
| ytote t9qgn edd to efeon sat ,eonavbhs of hext? enoiansmib 
SK acitots wewol ent Yo seeds totdw ro ,etentmisdead ylotitae 
“nenol ete to sleoe eid? .etebie taiveed tient dtix tnebnegeb - 


) ett ashno [etesbsy s to soidtsent sit yiseseoen sham yicte 


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131 

torus and the angles of the plinth in the normal ‘classic base, 
go that one might fear the flushing of the angles. Mediaeval 
architecture filled these saps in a thoroughly natural way by 
corner leaves, or sought to reduce them-in various ways, eiths 
er by hollowing out the upper edego of the plinth, by cutting 
off its angles, or by increasing the diameter of the lowest 
torus, so that its circumference became the dircumscribed cir- 
cle of the square plinth; or lastly by combinations of these | 
different modes of arrangement, as well as by hollowing out 
the angles. (Figs. 204, 205). If the diameter of the torus 
exceeded that of the plinth, the overhanging torus required 
support, which was furnished by a small corbel or an ornament, 
All these detail motives introduced into the forms of the base 
by mediaeval architecture, at least in part, may well be cloth- 
ed by the forms of the Renaissance. A peculiar treatment of t 
the bases of columns corresponding to the capitals composed of 
forms placed diagonally in combination with others, whose :chan- 
ges of section do not occur gradually, but suddenly, was a sr 
eat favorite in later mediaeval architecture and thereby :crea- 
ted a motive, which may be employed in many cases, very suita- 
ble for casting metal, iron architecture and wood carving. 

5. Pedestal of the ‘column. 

Roman architecture and following it the Renaissance felt a 
natural necessity of introducing other features in addition to 
the normal ones of the orders, which should. be more perfectly, 
adapted to the treatmen: of buildings in several stories; if 
one desired to place one order above another, the great projec- 
tion of the lower entablature concealed the bases of the ‘colu- 
mns placed on it. Perhaps the windows that were introduced re- 
quired a fixed height of the wall between them and the cornice; 
to make the base of the column visible, it could be placed on 
a separate pedestal of the same height as the window sill (Pig. 
206). But this with its cap must mow find room between the base 
and the top of the cornice in accordance with the tolerably 
normal proportions of the orders, which varied within ‘certain 
limits, the diameter of the column, its height, etc., were the 
dimensions fixed in advance, the scale of the upper story was 
entirely determinate, on which those of the lower stories were 
dependent with their heavier orders. This scale of the lower 
story made necessary the insertion of a pedestal under its 


' dekoll allt ee eT eee | . 

awe | 1 safet snaod oved setntedto bfaow dotdw .anaeloo 
at jofeveb yew aint nk o1en elateobeg Yo emtot tei fv0eF 
ated od? .fteteb ni notfatebtenoco sifopes dordw. eshte 
i Yo tent @\r of C\S eqedieq of atnwome alateacheq seo 
i et? dfinw nagloo sat to tads E\I teode x0 ,yrode evi 
prettoqqva astdu ,feteshsq sft Yo dtbse1d sdt ‘eeed bas 
veve Ro sedt neds aeef down ad ton bloone .nmnloo eat to 


) ved “gon ee estwiedso teeqqge bloow eidd sonte ,sesd eds to 


tes 
rq. bas ge ~8tb #8 to etetenoo [atesbeq to mtot tasiqute sit 
#70497" pyd stb sdf dtin bstoenaoo 9d ysu qao edt jeefd antdos, 
dn ot seoyreg oft of anibrosos .abnibldon dkt tenaas’ ‘Sen set 
or ne @2iw sonsbtocoos ni bas ,beyolfynue ei [etesbeq sat dor 
to8! Hanic y sd eatwodt! yan sib edt S08 ,sintostidors edt to seer 
ah nit ahs “ti (TOS .art) shydadas as yd seed say odin 
“eielta Se Yltottts etebx0 tiedd tqed atoteaw sonseetensi anal 
foo 1 Ned? to wfstuobex sd? oF emtot elqnte seent sve bne 
a tte .ott07 od? of ses fae geo belttorq yidots sion ,enay 
109 has Ofnol edt of Hs¢stoceh semttemos esno i9dDk" 
Bit : SM) eletesbeq Steaslo to stnsbeceqg sit dtin sonebiosoe nt 
i been ceuttsmoe oxls sew Saidoen steregee a <( e808 . 20S 
« to sedmen fegroniiq sdt ef based. edt slot 6 BA oblong r¥ 
ee gedmeu notitensts od? aentiemoe ef etat dauodd .geo 
sheenaaiba to tent bas enidastenoD to fo18 sat no as (anor 
“pel fso- pb Sat tot Seenavnat ean [stesbeg to wiot Jeedotn sAT 
edhe tnot to nottentdmoo e@ yd heonbo1wg t9b10 streogno? 
mead: Teten07 & gated es [atiqes etieogme) edt d3nodtIaA «nat 
Dpeented esoneasttib [ettesess oat Ons .ey tot sonatroyar 
shane BIshx0) sttaoquo) hae nsidtnized efi Yo eetutsldacne 
B ASeke dotdw jelitneb be enoifl thom tod to sew sit af yoo 
Sot Wedory sis woTIOS oF Hlerts od tou Iisde sw .seeq3 ton et 
wn pod Sulav yne eved yadt asdw [etesbeq siiacqmo) sat To 
| bnete Saat tol eteaed & e& sonetioymt as saved eletesdoel 
tae7s ROVS beoelg et od ef Rniittemoa dotde no stnemenon 
nate etrozqgne to enmofoo smoced madd ysdT .anmulpo 10% 
el edt dtod netv Yo tatoq tedd mort das .tte edt ni stosido 
\enmnloo rot elstesbsg beyolgas eelyte soneeskensh baa of 
isd) (fede of .egso Brinwors bme esesd Adin mend bedatnrs't 
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432 

columns, which would otherwise have borne false proportions. 
Peculiar forms of pedestals were in this way developed for the 
orders,which require consideration in detail. The height of t 
these pedestals amounts to perhaps 1/9 to 1/5 that of the ent- 
ire story, or about 1/3 that of the column with its capital 
and base’ the breadth of the pedestal, which supports the base 
of the column, should not be much less than that of the plinth 
of the base, since this would appear otherwise as not suffici- 
ently supported, that is always disagreeable. | 

The simplest form of pedestal consists of a die, cap and pro- 
jecting base. the cap may be connected with the die by support- 
ing and transition mobldings, according to the purpose for ah- 
ich the pedestal is employed, and in accordance with the rich- 
ness of the architecture, and the die may likewise be connected 
with the base by an apbphyge (Fig. 207). 

The Renaissance masters kept their orders strictly separate, 
and gave these simple forms to the pedestals of the Tuscan ‘col- 
umns, more richly profiled cap and base to the Doric, still r 
richer ones sometimes decorated to the Ionic and Corinthian, 
in accordance with the precedents of classic pedestals (Figs. 
208, 208a); a separate necking was also sometimes used as by 
Vignola. As a rule the band is the principal member of the 
cap, though this is sometimes the transition member (cyma, co- 
rona) as on the arch of Constantine and that of Severus. | 

The richest form of pedestal was invented-for the so-called 
Composite order produced by a combination of Ionic and Corinth- 
ian. Although the Composite capital as being a monster has no . 
importance for us, and the essestial differences between the 
entablatures of the Corinthian and Composite orders consist o 
only in the use of both modillions and dentils, which after all 
is not great, we shall irot be afraid to borrow the richer forms 
of the Composite pedestal when they have any value to us. (Fig. 209) 

Pedestals have an importance as a basis for free standing m 
monuments on which something is to be placed, evep greater than 
for calumns. They then become columns or supports bearing an 
object in the air, and from that point of view both the class- 
ic and Renaissance styles employed pedestals for columns, and 
furnished them with bases and crowning caps. We shall hereafter 
coasider the pedestal of a monument by itself. 


. | a M 5 : 

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ee me | 
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sit bloods anmofoo. bas eraiq beteteulo to asasd edt .n0 
* others fenbetz #8 Ativ dotde ,eioold essd eviseam ae 
p 10. Beane sit seve 1tetq) edt to srveastq ond studinteth 
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fei ne beqeda ed semitenoe bfuos setgoo tsxo0l edt jamtot 
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a. seed bso 
pine! wnt eqT .§ 
qynam os hootesshan ets t9iq Siow sat yd ylisrens> 
) toRxe aa svt of sidreaog yleor\cs ef Ff fads .enniat 
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are ddod .annplos tom ate dotan ettoggue [soitiev seond of 
OS ~aligx of betoennoo fine 
tensa dae oteas(D edt wt t9fq sat Yo taemtasrT .0 
aria ~ we eet9b10 
mpfoo~itin. nommoo mi ardt sved ayenls stutoetidots at eres? 
wr of sia nate. eft af baof @ droqqgue ot bebnetat ynied to sed? 
oT xe a annolos eiif. snot¢shbowot 247 of ermecetg ent simanest 
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paead a Boiwrct to mottonot ads sved soasd bas eletiqes samo 
‘bas beol ent to seeds bse s9ig 97 to myot oft seswited nord 
vat feomfe ef a9hq edt Yo noitoes ony sonte dod  soitahanot 
gen eltaich [avtoetidorn edt of sonsiste? dtin Semiot yldat 
Perekg eds to efatiges due sessed edt to noiternot ent ,ti 
es eberitilquie 
i dete eevainatiial yino yflerensy ston etebto oteeelo aAT 
h ofyte oto metoeD sdT .atety Hawogmoo 10 bedoadeh 
mi Mhirrnony tied bane oft0d s yi bedvoqqne evoads na asedg 
nom “Batane9 [feme s yd qot ts bedetntt bas (mnitenyo) eavasl 
ont : betosnncs esa (anibioom [(tseiwed) mektanyo edt garth 
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to oases edt no es . (FS .arT) beed [ss0q #8 yd betsogque aay 
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ont anoiseottibom [fame .anibfwon saad bsatevex s to Avail 
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133 

In massive arrangements of piers, such as are required by 
vaulted structures, especially in mediaeval churchzconstructi- 
on, the bases of clustered piers and columns should be treated 
as masSiv® base blocks, which with a gradual increase in width, 
distribute the pressure of the pier over the foundation. The 
offsets of the courses should te softened by any transition 
forms; the lower course could sometimes be shaped as a bench 
for a seat (Fig. 210); where such a seat is useful and justi- 
fiable, it affords the test means for giving the pedestal a 
broad base. 

2. The Pier. 

Cenerally by the word pier are understood so many different 
things,that it is scarcely possible to give an exact definition 
of the conception; therefore we shall here only apply the term 
to those vertical supports which are not columns, both detached 
and connected to walls. 

“«. Treatment of the pier in the Classic and Renaissance 
Orders. 

Piers in architecture always have this in common with columns, 
that of being intended to support a load in the air, and to t 
transmit the pressure to the foundation; like columns they re- 
quire a base slab, base, abacus and capital. As inocase of col- 
umns, capitals and bases have the function of forming a transi- 
tion between the form of the pier and those of the load and the 
foundation; but since the section of the pier is almost invar- 
iably formed with reference to the architectual details nearest 
it, the formation of the bases and capitals of the piers is s 
simplified. 

The classic orders were generally only concerned with square 
detached or compound piers. The Grecian Doric style gave wall 
piers an abacus supported hy a Doric and half recurved row,'of 
‘Yeaves (cymatium) and finished at top by a small crowning moul- 
ding; théescymatium (hawksbill moulding) was connected with the 
pier by a necking or a few bands, or exceptionally by an Ionic 
cyma supported by a pearl bead (Fig. 21.1), as on the temple of 
Nemesis at Rhamnus. The base consisted of a simple projecting 
plinth or a reversed base moulding. Small modifications in the 
forms of these capitals evidently occur in the few examples re- 
maining, and each individual case is designed in harmony with 


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bis. " (SIS .8f%) botnteupoe 
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134 
the entire building in which it is found. 

The pier caps of the Tuscan order of the Renaissance masters 
are partly very simple as in Vignola, partly richer and so pro- 
filed that the crown moulding becomes predominant (Fig. 212). 
The Roman and Renaissance styles profiled the Doric pier capi- 
tals in very similar ways, but usually left the base entirely 
simple, which consisted of a single offset with or without a 
transition moulding. 

The Crecian Ionic order invented two characteristic forms of 
anta capitals in the most important examples remaining from t 
the Erechtheum at Athens and the temple on the Illiagsas at the 
same place; further in the Propyleum at the temple of Minerva 
Polias at Priene, as well as in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus 
at Miletus. The {two first consist of a bead and necking betw- 
een which were inserted an Ionic cyma with above this a lesbi- 
an cyma with a pearl bead (Fig. 213). The necking was decorated 
by palm leaves, and in the first case was separated from the 
shaft by a small pearl bead. The two last are the so-called c 
Canopy capitals (Mauch. Arch. Ord. Pls. 11, 12), but to approve 
their form as well as their unquiet decorations, one must be 
a blind enthusiast for Crecian antiquity. The Crecian Ionic s 
style forms the base of the pier like that of the column. 

The Roman Ionic style, and in connection with it the Renais- 
gance treats the capitals of piers as richly moulded abacuses, 
with almost entire independence from the Creek conception, or 
as a capital decorated by foliage. What now remains of Roman 
architecture in general possesses so little authority over de- 
tail, that a great number of these heaped mouldings of caps 
have little value to us, and we can more nearly follow the Re- 
naissance, which took the greatest pains to restore the ideal 
of Roman architecture with whose decadence it was principally 
acquainted (Fig. 214). | 

Two versions of pier capitals of the Crecian Corinthian style 
are known to us -as in case of the Ionic, the pier caps from t 
the tower of the winds at Athens and two beautiful capitals 
from the entrance hall at Bleusis and from Paestum; both have 
decorations of foliage and figures. (Mauch. Arch.Ord. Pls.13,15). 

The Romans almost wholly employed only the Corinthian bell 
capital with acanthus foliage, which was adapted to the rectan- 
gular section of the pier; the Renaissance masters used similar 


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135 
forms, or impost capitals in case of piers supporting arches, 
which differ little from those of their Ionic or Composite or- 
der, chiefly in possessing a richer ornamental decoration than 
that of the latter (Figs. 215, 216). 

The bases of small piers such as window pilasters or those 
employed near canopied niches, were more simply formed in Rom- 
an and Renaissance 7rc"itecture according to cirmucstances, a 
and the mouldings were reduced to their possible minimum, or 
on the one hand if the decorative treatment was refined in ac- 
cordance with the material used (marble, bronze) and the posi- 
tion of the little piers or columns, the surfaces of the pilas- 
ters were decorated by delicate ornamental work or inlaid work, 
small columns were even treated as graceful candelabra, which 
is entirely justifiable and especially in decorative works.The 
forms of such minor architecture are of importance in the com- 
position of monuments proper, reredoses and similar articles 
of furniture related to the domain of architecture proper, as 
nell as actual furniture. In art works on the other hand, acc- 
ording to the principle firmly retained throughout our entire 
discussion, in general only the typical in architecturel forms 
possesses meaning, while the detail'‘forms require transformat- 
ion and a finer treatment, corresponding to the purpose of the 
furniture and other articles. } 

8. Formation of compound piers according to the classic plan. 

According to the plan of an interior, a series of modes of 
forming groups of piers result, which may be referred to a fen 
ground motives:- 1, two or more piers form a group of elements 
of equal height; 2, they form a group of elements of unequal 
height (Fig. 21/). In both cases the following ground motives 
result in practice:- 3, two piers stand beside each other; b, 
two piers make a right, acute or obtuse angle with each other; 
c, several piers compose a group. These problems occur on faca- 
des as well as in interiors, in post and lintel as in arched 
construction. 

If several piers are connected in a group of determinate he- 
ight, each one.either requires its separate capital and base, 
and the piers may then be detached from the wall, which affords 
sufficient space for the free development of the capitals and 
bases, a common plinth and abacus may also be added to these; 


a 8 aro bas tsisezo% wo13 asasd bas elaetiqas edt 10 
t 19 tneitnset foiiw at ,easd basoqmoo 8 tne fetrqao 
p LL ot etnemanto notdianetd sitepst semitemos aolyne 
oh bas .sfodn # entot yilast qwows sat tadd o@ .eald 
oi . motisnidmos [anietxe ms se y{sxem 1897 
918 tod .19go1g yino don 918 enoitoennoo sersvansiT 
19 brtdd ano tuods te etsiq bevoqmon ni-sesso Yew ni yt 
g¢ sentoz0t bnod ylieqoiq of t9b10 ni, tdgted aftedt ties 
5 | [atevee to bezogmos doses ,scete to aseiuoo taste? 
& baod 2 s1sdiw eteta fotad to eant yllerosgqes ei 
ype teontt edt to en0 .ylisnotesooo betisani 
poms) ont to tugoD eft to ealans edt ta bavot af enoifosancos 

jisd, fautenc to 918 quo13 8 to aisig edt tI .emod ts site! 
Wig 8d¢ to eeasd bas elstiqes sdt ,e{dtesog smosed eased ond 
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inteze eff moktt0q gntheoe1 sit to esesd Sas aqso asiq 
] jeto1q edt bus geo edt to anottooio1g sat .s noitosiord 
atblu m edt to gaterh aidt tedz?. .bezns11a o@ sd tenn t9iq odd 
| sekg senol eit to. aso sdf somte .(OLS .3i7) efdterog at 

0 a8 edt .On0 gnitoeto1g eft to biloe edt mtatin bebolons sd 
te 2tm0: 8 een a9tq edt dguoids yloriias Onetxe yamgtomict oad 
rt @fp2 .bred 2 88. nottr0g aattoe,ory edt intissad ,snove 
-geio1d od yem 2 euntbfrom xsvol sat 70 ute la atamet cen 
ie bnitostowy dteome s aaityoqges ,19tq Lertnso ods 
» egaidicon teqqu sat 70 “orb ekatbi[uom teqga ent doide 
2 sat taniegeperd geno tenol edt ufne bas dyvod?t one 
. _ nsiond adiyem aorbloom gso stitas sat yltes{ 10 ;19er9 
estat te Snco* sus. eletiges tI .(OS Bi) 8iq lfeitnae> ond 
it e129 eis? bInofe eno .seiq bawoqmoo & ni atdgred gnarsti rh 
So Yo moitosjowg ed? tenteys asib isig msx0l edt to aso, oft 
_# of baoyee7702 dof4a eeatuco adt Sna (ISS .3f%) eno tasagid. 
ddoome 26 1919 nadatd edt Ase td yao biaoo efatiaso sesas 
prom dostts ne sved Slow tnessanst1e teito yns yees8o aidd of 
wer? euntdteteth eee! to 
| Baiyquooe to egatnsvbssib odd senso yeu etetg Hasogne? 
ent Baiishoid to. bas ,netv edt gnittouwsdo as [fen as sosge 
yam ersitg stetages scqT .moor odd ofni JdRil Yo egeeasg 
> eidT .(s VIS .BIT) enmafoo yt beoslqet J1eq oi 92 otc 
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136 
or the capitals and bases grow together and form a compound c 
capital anf a compound base, in which reentrant or projecting 
angles sometimes require transition ornaments to fill the an- 
gles, so that the sroup really forms a whole, and does not ap- 
pear merely as an external combination. 

Transverse connections are not only proper, but are necessa-—- 
ry in many cases in compound piers at about one third or one | 
half their height, in order to properly bond together the dif- 
ferent courses of stone, each composed of several pieces; this 
is especially true of brick piers where a bond stone must be 
inserted occasionally. One of the finest examples of transverse 
connections is found at the angles of the court of the Cancel- 
laria at Rome. If the piers of a group are of unejual height, 
two cases become possible, the capitals and bases of the proj- 
ectifg portion extend around the other (Fig. 218 a); or the 
pier caps and bases of the receding portion die against the p 
projection a. The projections of the cap and the projection of 
the pier must be so arranged, that this dieing of the mouldings 
is possible (Fig. 219). Since the cap of the lower pier must 
be included within the solid of the projecting one, the cap of 
the formersmay extend entirely through the pier as a course of 
stone, breakink the projecting portion as a band. But this band 
man remain plain; or the lower mouldings may be broken around 
the central pier, supporting a smooth projecting band, against 
which the upper mouldings die; or the upper mouldings may ext- 
end through and only the lower ones die: against the central 
pier; or lastly the entire cap moulding may be broken around 
the central pier (Fig. 220). If capitals are found at three 
different heights in a compound pier, one should take care that 
the cap of the lower pier dies against the projection of the 
highest one (Fig. 221), and the courses #Hich correspond to t 
these capitals could only break the higher pier as smooth bands 
in this case; any other arrangement would have an effect more 
or less disturbing. 

Compound piers may cause the disadvantage of occupying more 
space as well as obstructing the view, and of hindering the 
passage of light into the room. The separate piers may theref- 
ore be in part replaced by columns (Fig. 217 a). This causes 
many difficulties; one must first decide whether he will strictly 


at " “ ; , ‘ 
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Ns osvustt ton base “ateoqmt Sat te ofeneqes yfertsas 4d ot 


137 

adhere to the principle of considering the column only as 4 
unit, therefore never employing it asa quarter, half or three 
quarter column, nr whether these shall be used. If it is dec- 
ided to substitute columns for piers, that never require a 
fixed ratio of heidht to width, one is always fettered by 
proportions to a certain degree, and if he refuses to make the 
ratio of height independent by placing pedestals beneath the 
columns, it may ofcur that the columns will appear too slender 
in comparison with the remainder of the pier not replaced by 
columns. If different heights in the compound pier are to be 
taken into account, another proportion of the column must be 
suited, and it would be very difficult to obtain a harmony of 
all parts. These and other difficulties that especially occur 
in church construction, will not be diminished but even incre- 
ased by the use of half columns, formed according to the clas- 
séc model, and onencan only avoid them all by emaocipating hin- 
self from the classic orders and strengthening the pier by sen- 
icircular projections, which are entirely independent of all 
classic proportions and are provided with capitals especially 
composed for each case (Fig. 222). In this way is found the 
mode of formation of piers employed in mediaeval vaulted con- 
struction, one tendency of which was begun in the cathedral 
of Autun and never received any farther development, or was 
brought to a consistent issue, although a kind of Renaissan- 
ce was created in it, which is as far removed from the coer- 
cion of the classic as from that of mediaeval architecture, 
or from Cothic, the most extreme phase of its development. 

y. Compound fiers atcording to the mediaeval plan. 

The question arises how the problem of mediaeval vaulted 
construction may be solved by a treatment of the piers, that 
may retain whatever is worthy to be retained, of the forms of 
classic architecture and in the spirit of the Renaissance, but 
which is freed from the restraint of the classic orders, so f 
far as their rules cannot now satisfy purposes for which they 
were not intended. Take the general case of a space to be divi- 
ded by piers, each bay of the plan to be covered by a groin 
vault, with the further condition that the pier must occupy 
as little space as possible, the ribs and arches of the vaults 
to be entirely separate at the imposts and not intersecting; 


¢ 


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| aw. pacotney Th adit ett of nottrogory nt svtasean ood 18 
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to noitoee edt Anioubet to mefdorwg 90% noisetsbren0o 
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for od of estupss tsdtien eisl{iq bavod [ie te ton, 10 bebeol 


138 ; 
if «e support the side arches by semicircular projections, the 
total width of the piers will not be less, than if these proj- 
ections were rectangular; the supports of the ribs would appe- 
ar too massive in proportion to the ribs if rectangular, ahen 
viewed diagonally, for the moulded ribs would then recede back 
of the supporting pier. Therefore we can make the projections 
rectangular under the side arches and round under the ribs, 
thereby obtaining arrangements allied in form to the transiti- 
on style, the more readily if we make the crowns of the arches 
of approximately equal heights, which requires different heig- 
hts for the springing points of the supports. The rectangular 
pier should be treated similarly to classic pilasters, but the 
semicircular piers supporting the ribs are not considered as 
being classic columns, since their proportions are entirely 
independent from those of columns; they are and remain round 
piers or vaulting shafts, to use the striking expression of 
the middle ages. 

It is here sufficient here to have indicated in what way the 
mediaeval form of pier may be adapted to one allied to the cl- 
assci type and conversely: this is not the place to go onto 
separate questions concerning the treatment of the pier, which 
results from mediaeval vaulted construction; whoever fully un- 
derstands mediaeval architecture will easily find his way in 
accordance with what is given here, to compare mediaeval and 
Renaissance modes of treating the pier. There only remains for 
consideration the problem of reducing the section of the pier 
to occupy the least possible space and not obstruct the light. 

If the pier, or rather the section of its load, be arranged 
symmetrically about two axes, it may be replaced by a simple 
cylindrical column, if its capital be so formed:as to afford 
a proper support for each separate arch. If the symmetry exis- 
ts only about a sinjle axis, the support may be a pair of equal 
or unequal coupled columns, or may consist of a group of round 
columns, according to circumstances (Fig. 224), in which case 
it must be remembered, that in most cases it is very diffitult 
to transmit a uniform pressure. or one proportional to the sec- 
tional areas of the different columns, and that generaaly but 
one column really supports the load, the other being slightly 


loaded or not at all. Round pillars neither require to be swelted, 


REL 
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t ogmt edt to mottemvot edt mo ebasgeb montnim ett of re 
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to isetz edd to qso teogmt edt evode sedto dose mont 
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=a edt nedy sass sdt amtategrot ton ;foeti0oni 93 bloor 


139 
diminished, nor fluted, as they are not columns in the sense 
of classé columns of fixed proportions, but are rather circ- 
ular wall masses, if one may so speak. In all forms of piers 
cited heretofore, we have assumed that the side arches and 
ribs are separated above the capital, so that the section of 
the impost block is not composed of arch and rib sections in- 
tersceting each other. The reduction of the section of the pi- 
er to its minimum depends on the formation of the impost stone, 
neglecting the strength of the materials employed for the ‘pier, 
and the permanent crushing load on the pier. While the mode of 
executing a refined and complex piece of stonecutting was not 
yet understood, the ribs and arches were necessarily separated 
from each other above the impost cap of the pier, in the best 
Cothic period it first became known, how to allow the arches 
to intersect at their lower ends, to require the least possible 
area on their support. Then three cases became posseble, either 
the extreme outer points of the ribs and arches were equidist- 
ant from the axis of the pier, or the arches or else the ribs” 
projected more than the other members (Fig. 225). 

The simplest arrangement in both appearance and execution is 
that in which the ribs and arches unite above the impost and 
form a polygonal impost (Fig. 226), which shows the section b 
reduced to its minimum. If the ribs are smaller than the arch- 
es, the polygon has alternately equal sides c, and since each 
stone above the impost is to be wrought from a rough square 
block, to save material it is preferable to keep the number of 
courses of stone between the impost and the first voussoirs of 
the ribs and arches as small as possible, and to allow the ribs 
ho project so far from the axis of the pier, that their secti- 
ons may completely fill the upper square 4 becdof the rough 
block atcdef gh 6Figse227); in this case the cap stone 
of the pier will be square. If it is desired to have the ribs 
and arches project as little as possible, to reduce the support 
to the absolute minimam, they should spring from a square cap- 
ital as in Fig. 228); but if we wish to separately develop the 
arches, reducing only the ribs, the abacus of the capital might 
be square (Fig. 229). To place the most distant parts of the 
ribs farther from the axis of the pier than those of the arches, 
mould be incorrect; not forgetting the case when the ribs and 


t 


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prtettey baad betnteq yd hetaioosb ese fae dtooma bs 
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p dotiw .ershris to emaed baneprt sottnen yltetad of entamon 


140 
arches have equal radii and equal heights of imposts and crowns 
in a vault on a square plan. A peculiar form of vaulted const- 
ruction would then be developed with very high sections of ribs, 
cross-shaped and strongly projecting capitals that should be 
treated as corbels if they are to be placed on small supports; 
such constructions are suitable for mixed iron and stone con- 
struction. : 
3. Entablatures of Stone, Wood or Iron. 
a. Treatment of entablatures. 

The most important points concerning beams of wood and stone 
have been stated in connection with the treatment of ceilings, 
yet these have been given with special reference to interiors, 
less to the development of entablatures on the exterior and s 
serving to connect supports, either columns or pilasters. 

The bearing capicity of entablatures increases in proportion 
to the square of their depths and in direct proportion to their 
widths, as well knewn; the sgans of intercolumniations then de- 
pends on the sectional area of the entablature, but evidently 
chiefly on its resistance to transverse stress for the material 
employed. 

Classic styles treated the architrave as a simple beam with 
a projecting margin (Fig. 230), or it #as composed of two or 
three courses lying on each other and crowned by a cymatium, 
the courses being separated by richer arrangements of pearl b 
beads or smaller cymas. The underside of the architrave remain- 
ed smooth and was decorated by painted band patterns, but in 
Roman buildings it was generally ornamented by sunk panels or 
by relief bands (Fig. 231) (Mauch, Arch. Ord. Pl. 62), the lat- 
ter being commonly enclosed by cymas and pearl beads. 

tf the loner side of the archatrave appeared too broad, its 
centre was decorated by a moulded or ornamental band, and it 
was so Givided in two halves (Fig. 232). When the architrave 
was composed of two beams placed side py side, the under edge 
of each could be decorated by a simple sunk or ornamental panel, 
or these moulded sinkings could be arranged symmetrically about 
the central joint (Fig. 233). 

Yooden beams have been treated with exhaustive fullness in 
the consideration of the construction of ceilings, and it only 
remains to briefly mention trussed beams or girders, which play 


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141 
an important part‘in bridge construction; whether of wood or 
iron, lattcie, suspension, or girders supported by piers, their 
nature consists in this, that the bearing upper and lower men- 
bers are connected by stiffening members, and are so fastened 
together, that the girder becomes an inflexible whole like a 
roof truss. What was said of visible wooden and iron roof con- 
struction therefore applies to the construction of girders, but 
especially the frequently repeated general law, than in engin- 
eering construction on a large scale, the tectonic solution of 
the problem is to be sought in the paainest and clearest cons- 
truction, and not in the paltry treatment of details. The rec- 
ognition of the external appearance of a perfected construction, 
as being esthetically valuable, is more important than any at- 
tempt to conceal the construction by covering the structural 
forms by decorations in thisn metal or boards. In the course 
of the entire discussion, we have already spoken as occasion 
offered, of the general peculiarities that may come into con- 
Sideration in the construction of bridges of iron or wood, 80 
that scarcely anything new remains to be said of the treatment 
of the girders; they should be regarded as being resolved into 
their parts, mahich will then receive examination elsewhere in 
relation to principles and in connection with other things. 
8, Entablature in connection with the classic orders. 

Classic architecture based the proportions of the intercolun- 
niations and their heights on the lower diameter of the columns, 
ana fixed certain normal proportions that were more or less b 
binding. Such normal ratios can evidently possess but a limited 
value; for the distance in the clear between the upper ends of 
the calumns, or rather the actual span of the architrave, chi- 
efly depends on the resistance of its material to transverse 
stress. Rasily fractured stone required the columns to be set 
closely, and on the contrary tough stone permitted them to be 
spaced widely. Since the classic columns had normal proportions 
of height to a certain degree, the Doric order could have rela- 
tively wide intercolumniations if low, but must have narrow o 
ones if with very tall colunms; for if the extreme allowable 
span of a stone beam is fixed at about 20 ft., the height of 
the order would depend on this span only within certain limits, 
and the character of the entire order might change without al- 


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144 
altering the actual span of the architrave. 

Ionic and forinthian orders as well as those with pedestals, 
always appear to have relatively narrow intercolumniations, 
Since their height is great in proportion to the lower diamet— 
ers of the columns. An old French edition of Vignola’s Orders 
gives the following practical proportions, which may properly 
be taken as normal:- 

Let D (Fig. 234) = lower diameter and H = height of the col- 
umn; w, W., #” = distances between their axes; H’ = total height 
with architrave, frieze and cornice; then approximately; 


H a Ww” a” = 
Tuscan order, 7D 1250D 3D AD 9D 
Another examp. 7.5 D 292/3°D 13 1/30Div4o4/20D 2900 /Bap 
Roman Doric 8D 24D 31/3 D 41/2.D 9°3/4D 
Roman Ionic 9D 1°2/8 De .4.D 5°2/2°D *14 D 
Roman Corinth. 9 1/2 D 2D 4D 5 1/2.D.«11°1/2.D 


These proportions only sive starting points, correct only in 
a general way, so as not to approach too closely certain limits, 
which map not be exceeded in usual cases if good proportions 
of the orders are desired. If the architrave is to be suprpopted 
by arches (Fig. 235) the spans may be greater. the work just 
mentioned gives the following normal proportions for this case. 
H W a’. A’: a” si* 
Tuscan order 7 D 2D 5B §2/3D7D 3.1/2 D 
Another examp. 7 1/2D 1 3/4D 51/4D 91/4D70D 3.1/2 D 
Roman Doric 8D 1.3/4 D5 2/3 D 10D 8D 4D 
Roman Ionic 9D 13/4D 6D» 11:Deoo 7 1/2 D Aodhan 
Roman Corinth. 10D 61/2D61/2D 121/4D61/2D 4 1/2p 
For orders with pedestals (Fig. 236), letting P @ height of 
pedestal; H = height of column; H’, = total height, other nota- 
tion remaining as before, the same book gives the following n 
normal proportions for this case:- 
P H H’. W Rn’. Ww” a’” 
Tusc. ords*2 1/3D 7D 11°-D. 13/4D° 61/2D°°8 D 41/2 D 
Anotheex. 21/2D 7.5 D 113/4D 1 3/4D 63/4 D 81/2 D 43/4 D 
Rom.Doric 22/3 D 8D 123/4D 21/2D 7 D 9 3/4 D5 3/4-D 
Rom.fonic 320: ) 91/3D 141/2D 1 1/2D 73/4D 91/3 D 6D 
Rom. Gor. 31/2D 10D 151/3D 2D 8 D 93/4 D 6D. 
y. Arrangement of piers and architraves in girder bridges. 


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142 

The piers of most girder bridges and of similar structures 
are usually strong wooden trestles or masses of masonry, or 
more rarely are iront structures, which serve as the abutments 
of the bridge girders. According to their arrangements they a 
are either end or intermediate piers» they consist of a base, 
the pier itself, and the cap or coping for receiving the brid- 
ge girder, according to whether they serve as piers of bridges 
leading across a river, or as those of viaducts or aqueducts. 

Under all circumstances the base serves as a firm and broad 
foundation for the entire structure, and bridges over rivers 
or arms of the sea must te constructed with reference to the 

highest and lowest water levels, to high water as well as to 
the ebb and flow of tides, it serves as a wave and ice breaker, 
aki KasRasaxxeadxbkapxpecpkaukdédeaxkarasedgudeindrtorbheingteoa- 
and as such has its peculiar form corresponding to the material 
purpose, and may be provided with a coping or crowning course, 
or be prepared to receive the body of the pier by means of any 
suitable transition form; the entire pier is diminished upward, 
partly to save material, partly to less obstruct the passage of 
water, and also in many cases to avoid loading the foundation 
too heavily, besides it always looks better than if it were not 
diminished. The transition from the base to the body of the p 
pier with its projections at both sides and ends, permits the 
most varied changes of section, that exert an essential influ- 
ence on the pleasing form of the bridge pier. The architects 
of the middle ages fully understood how to effectively treat 
these projections, which served to beeak the force of the wates, 
sometimes erecting chapels on them, sometimes furnishing them 
with platforms or balconies, accessible only by means of steps, 
from which aid conld be given to sailors or logs could be pre- 
vented from striking the pier. 

The base of the pier and its projecting ends were not const- 
ructed with sole reference to a pleasing effect, but to break 
the waves, to admit of the use of the plainest rough and rock- 
faced ashlars, and the strongest mode of anchoring the stones 
by means of iron cramps; when such pier heads were protected 
by ironwork, they have a fine effect. 

The body of the pier is lacking in many cases, the girder 
being placed directly on the substructure, which is then coowned 


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144 
by battlements, by a tower, a pedestal supporting a statue or 
group of statues, a through pier serving to conceal the junct- 
ion of the ends of two girders, the body of the fier sometimes 
rises from its base leaving a bold offset to serve as abutment 
for the struts of a wooden abutment bridge (Fig. 237). 

The coping under the girder serves both as a block for its 
support and as a cap for the pier. jor the first purpose, it 
should have a strong projection where it receives the girder; 
for the latter it must have a bold cornice Fig. 238), which 
may be profiled in various ways according to the character and 
arrangement of the bridge, whether it is to be in a city or in 
the country, connected with fortifications or be a simple via- 
duct or aqueduct, bein a park or in a narrow and rocky valley, 
in accordance with which it should make a more or less pleasing 
impression corresponding to the locality and its purpose, or be 
more or less robust or graceful. 

The corbelling at the top of the pier, angle projections, t 
tower-like additions, towers and other moderately effective 
structural motives for developing the bridge pier aechitectur- 
ally,should be employed wherever possible in order to,smake a 
real architectural work of the simplest and most economical 
problem of bridge construction. 

Reference must once more be made to the general considerations 
on the problems of engineering, where anticipating this oppor- 
tunity, we suggested an esthetic expedient for treating lattice 
bridges, the least pleasing of all bridges, so that their parts 
might be in harmony with each other,and the whole be suited to 
the surrounding landscape. 

The abutments at the ends of the bridge might have a richer 
and more pleasing treatment by using known architectural moti- 
ves, than is usually accorded to them. Generally they are mere- 
ly terminating masses of masonry, which resist the pressure of 
earth like retaining walls, and whose external appearance is 
principally dependent on the choice of the kind of masonry. A 
special emphasistshould te laid on antransition between thet 
abutment and the girder so much the more, because the unpleas- 
ing junction of the girder and pier is generally neglected. 
Hence the so-called corbellings are valuable esthetic expedie- 
nts, and the hardness of the junction of the horizontal and 


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145 
vertical lines of the end of the bridge should be broken by f 
flights of stairs (Fig. 140), pendentive vaults in the angles 
with the shore walls (Fig. 241), angle towers (Fig. 242), but- 
tresses and similar architectural motives. This hardness disap- 
pears in arched bridges, whether built of masonry or merely b | 
bridge girders of curved form. 
4. Arches above Piers and Columns. 
a. General. y 

Fixed rules cannot be given foh the proportions of agecades 
without regard to their purpose, for which they are employed; 
the effect of the arch will be the more powerful, the greater 
its radius, and the smaller, the height of its support (Fig. 
243), it will appear to be heavily loaded and weak if the arch 
be too thin, lightly loaded and clumsy if it be tho deep. (Figs. 
244, 245). The form of the arch has for us something peculiarly 
characteristic through associated ideas, segmental and ellipt- 
ical arches of low rise see® to be depressed (Fig. 246), and ' 
this characted of depression corresponds in the fullest degree 
to the arrangement, where the supports of the arch are low, as 
in low halls and bridges; it is more or less opposed to designs 
for rooms of considerable height and to ppans on high supports; 
the depressed arch, whether segmental or elliptical, only looks 
well as a discharging arch, when the arch merely serves its p 
purpose without raising the question of making 4 pleasing app- 
earance (Fig. 247). Its stability is increased and its appear- 
ance becomes more pleasing, if its depth be increased tonard 
the abutments (Fig. 248). The elliptical arch of low rise is 
fully justified when constructed in a small span between abut— 
ments which serve as corbels (Pig. 249). The abutments may then 
be replaced by supports or corbels of different forms, which 
likewise support the elliptical arch (Fig. 250). In many cases 
the broken segmental arch may be used (Fig. 251), but it is s 
strictly only a pointed arch, in others the broken oval arch 
may have a very elegant effect, since it surpasses the segmen- 
tal and elliptical arches in pleasigg effect, for example if 
its rkse = 1/3 its span or 1/2 if its curvature be as regular 
as possible. 

The semicircular arch always appears pleasing, if its lower 
ends are not concealed by a projecting impost cornice; it suits 


ie ett Yo SMyted ont baa aeye att nvewted notsreqoTy yme 
; exetyz att teddy oe ,ssAd «& mort. qithers5 anise yen th 
 toodttn etaoqque sakn yiev no beoslq ed yem Yr 10 dot 
pak gore bsintoq 8 aguontia ,soetts anidsterh a yai 
‘&k betlite yfanoite ed yam FE , seo teal edt nt gant 
“y: ©epsneahneasohaned Ife of betting setted et ti: teted at 
enortose to stat ssdto 

. nemegnsiis sit of pevneba teeel ef dow bhatnror eat 
pbteV .beinsoor yifetosqs ed of et nottosatbh Irottrav ond 
’ to wett to autbst edt antnterstsb to ebodtjem Lewitoutte 
| rs ‘a’ * aptbay of? .f .eske slbbin sat mt anony sisw dors 
qed = aotbeay edd \S .(S2@S .yrF)) mage x sche te e\s 
me: 22) 0 sf ee tedd0o dose ot sobie diin slonatag r 
fosto1w ys Snoot ets dow edt to asatneo ant ,f am it 
Vb s(62S .889) Lenogetb 2 no nogylog sit to aolgne 
ott tadt o8 «no3ylog eft to fenokharh « no broot ete 
B) ebason' 00 to eefrns eeidt 70 owt AQnordt eeseag done 
Mefgnie s svéd noitouitenoo to abodtom easdt [14 .(deS 
wf tore betatoq sat to tnémehral(ne ott Rnrhbts Yo dant 
Om ihnt¢#noenote nt aA1ow sorxe ynintstdo to. haw sale 
t to noitosttenco eft ok sshatnevbsa wsils.e7 besesracg 
9d bluow 35 waaltics STq stew etedto slidn ,yrs9end 
B ont to sttay eat to se1tnso odd enimreteb ot aoitoesy 
sf ct es oraelut bexr? yna vt , favo 10 dSetnteq Asod 
OnIdenss oft etagno? este [{pnt asdtd Baninerd to rode! 
Shit) amtot dona bentdmaa to ebati [fh .(# AAS .2ih 
F yetntcortsons mofeom bre [averntbem af bsitaterq eeods 
§ Yo besogroo seodt yifetosyes bes  sonecertenes dotnl 
| tud Ietetontte a ton saved ,xetutevtso xsvnod bae 
@@ mot? Sefuloxe sd stctesredd Oloode Ore ,sofev svitearo 
puob edt of beteyelen Rnied ,sldieeeg 28) doom ies engsesh 
10% -ofdsttrtent vintedyso st yadst ei1s0W .molttEerooeh 
nineqo nortan ,eantnego telleo ,swoSninw to: s10b [ene 
jo’ [feme oefs ,enote sfunte & yd bersveo sis fnotdw ell 
ed [fsx ysm ,elIsw ni eedotn [L[eme Yo egnitevoo eat 10 
" fidw ,ayaw esottev taom sat mi fontdmoo amtot dows oi be 
fade once! & te Seen tt [sixstowtte of ton blyow entot soee 
3 a | He ‘nose? tadt vot bebfrova ad blrode har 

)) ant brewed dtqeb beesston? ne eettopay Now Letnenzer saT 


a 


- ad 


retnic 


146 

any proportion between its span and the headght of its supports; 
it may Spring directly from a base, so that its piers are onit- 
ted, or it may be placed on very high supports aithout produc- 
ing a disturbing effect, although a pointed arch is more pleas- 
ing in the last case, it may be strongly stilted if necessary; 
in brief it is better suited to all cércumstances than is any 
other form of section. 

The pointed arch is least adapted to the arrangement in which 
the vertical direction is to be specially accented. Various c 
structural methods of determining the radius of the pointed 
arch nore nown in the middle ages. 1, the radius = 2/3, 3/4, 
4/5 = ----- x span (Fig. 252). 2, the radius = hypothenuse of 
a triangle with sides to each other as 1+: 1, 1°: 2, 17% 3 = 
1+: n. 3, the centres of the arch are found by projecting the 
angles of the polygon on a diagonal (Fig. 253). 4, the centres 
are found on a diagonal of the polygon, so that the pointed 
arch passes through two or three angles of the polygon (Fig. 
254). All these methods of construction have a single purpose, 
that of aiding the enlargement of the pointed arch to full 
-gize and of obtaining exact work in stonecutting, some of them 
possessed peculiar advantages in the construction of forms of 
tracery, abile others were pure trifles. It would be well in 
practice to determine the centres of the parts of the arch, 
both pointed or oval, by any fixed rulesso as to lessen the 
labor of drawing them full size. Compare the constructions 
(Fig. 254 a). All kinds of combined arch forms (Fig. 255) like 
those preferred in mediaeval and moslem architecture, in the 
Dutch Renaissance, and especially those composed of concave 
and convex curvatures, have not a structural but merely a dec- 
orative value, and should therefore be excluded from structural 
designs as much as possible, being relegated to the domain of 
decoration, where they are certainly justifiable. For example, 
snall dors or windoas, cellar openings, narrow openings in wa- 
lls, which are covered by a single stone, also small canopies 
or the coverings of small niches in walls, may well be finish- 
ed in arch forms combined in the most various ways, while the 
same forms would not be structural if used on a large stale, 
and should be avoided for that reason. 

The segmental arch requires an increased depth toward the 


\ 
4 
3 
i 


: Tar 
A edaiay es awbad ytiltdate a) seretont of atcontode 
ongien Bidt e6ttnpss dove betatog edt yisrtaos eft 
toa? etdt Yo sabslnond # oP o(8@S .3f%) nwono aff 
Sa to someituees na sort arterte shotetup to yntiest 
> OWt S29 Yo Sno Anioga NE .fOLTOOTTANOD Yo shom 
abet ibe shinee Sit to sto yt #fst sd yleotsos bloow totes 
.. Hlwow Se1shtenco e1ed eesbt to enottetooees sit 
preTOj019 & toqque neo sets OL to dome mh .meds of Boi 
o o fo1s betntey 4 ytarinos edt mo tod ,emole baol stayit 
Sit to noftefooeas ne no stotetsds ‘eno yvesd & sto 
. of yfsagil seoqje of dows felt 2 tot been slfdtaty adé 
gisls «oS. ,9tdm80 eft 3s bobeol Yliveed ano betntog e 
pie et nofinetie et5ch .xeis ett ts dsosta of bIuode 
iq ef [ftw afostts yntesefinn ,enortersbisno seadt 
oktose to emtot sit to seat yiferenes af omse oT 
yen $f -nedows shite of ‘nottefer ni hatate es teas 
veh Rit) S#lovtdors sist Yo efttorg ont tant \bobhs ad 
joie To diyzeb ed? of Snibtoosa I -jrstoatedo afi syan 
seal to soet sat mort nottostowq aff oF antbroooe 
| piling yefye Sat to notsentfont bettesb sdt of gnitto - 
et 077 easzsre edt of tnas2net ef dofdw bse ,tdZel 
ah ) . eeirtorg 
-299brad fedora’. 
Bnidsco of ysw [stse93 8 ni mist erdd yIqg4 lesen st 
eHbias ster wetdedw ,nglesh shbiad at eitotg bas esdows 
fe agooids seeq of baor & Sntttinrsq [few e mt ebnine 
tie senbr+d hart ign 7TO YIsosam to eezbind .esbivd yrroe 
r piu = enork to boon Yo assbrth 
aes Blanco od [fiw hae eshbhted vewsteay sbolont eyanate) 
to bi ) vad ow ted? deol .eliew mt exatasdo Atrn mofrtosnaas 
Dt ” oats et notsonitenso exbiad atin softosnnoo ni etotq 
fa dditv esiwtomite 1s sasdt es ast of .noabtad panods 
erent etinpet ysdt ,encota To aeghitd bedtore tot 94 
noteionr [stnostrod e yd trentmorg ylanotte sbax ‘ot 
etneatgda ody to tnenteart te 
. edt te tfte fos edt to teoqrk 4% asedo yan nl 
mi — ne Bntiosl! sd wig sdv tk tO ,t8Lq Sit to Ratqoo ant sd 
 Mo0lS anrtevoo sdt .eeed to stptonttedve sat atin asbhio 
ftdexfh eyatiqe dove edt acess isdto at +taogat sat auto 


147 
abutments to increase its stability under a greater load; on 
the contrary the pointed arch requires this increase toward 
its crown (Fig. 256). To a knowledge of this fact we owe the 
feeling of quietude arising from an assurance of a correct 
mode of ‘construction, in seeing one of these two cases; such 
quiet would scarcely be felt by one of the uninitiated, since 
the associations of ideas here considered would then be want- 
ing to them. An arch of low rise can support a proportionally 
light load alone, but on the contrary a pointed arch can supp- 
ort a heavy one: therefore on an association of ideas is based 
the visible need for a flat arch to appear lightly loaded, and 
a pointed one heavily loaded at the centre, i.e., a large mass 
should be placed at its apex. Where attention is not paid to 
these considerations, unpleasing effects will be produced. 

The same is generally true of the forms of section of arches, 
that was stated in relation to side arches; it only remains to 
be added, that the profile of the archivolt (Fig. 257) may ch- 
ange its character?- 1, according to the depth of the arch; 2, 
according to its projection from the face of the wall; 3, acc- 
ording to the desired inclination of the splay for admitting . 
light, and which is tangent to the extreme projections of the 
profile. 

8. Arched bridges. 

We here apply this term in a general way to combinations of 
arches and piers in bridge design, whether gate bridges or op- 
anings in a wall permitting a road to pass through under a ma- 
sonry bridge, bridges of masonry or girder bridges with curved 
girders of wood or iron. 

Cateways include gateway bridges and will be considered in 
Connection with openings in walls. Most that we have said of 
piers in connection with bridge construction is also true of 
arched bridges, so far as these are structures with girders. 

As for arched bridges of stone, they require the imposts to 
be made strongly prominent by a horizontal incision and a cle- 
ar treatment of the abutment. 

In many cases the impost of the arch will at the same time 
be the coping of the pier, or if the pier be lacking and coin- 
cides with the substructure or base, the covering block itself 
forms the impost+ in other cases the arch springs directly from 


Sar 
trod teoqmt as tedt on \egbiad edd Yo notsebnpot edt 
ee to @ncpAe? arond toq .y1RReecsnon 
‘ot esetpod L[etnostiod dite s{tvd 9d blwonte fos edt 
ee & Tot stom edited ,dowe tealuorttotm|ee & to sain adt 
Risin gene hetaiog # 10% buitds sno tuods bas ,dow L[eort 
mop. yd bemtot ef biexge gntmebinw yllenbsets enam [les 
poesetg fom ent bas .enote to asatn0o. eteteyee edt 
b rertse blyode sean tremtote eidT etremtnds me ea etdd 
. B ,e0ek0 ynA nk siutootte baer [eitetem ni Testi sore 
ta B@S .Rfe) ateddo mt tasntmorg yilstosqes shan sd yer 
Woue syelq dotdw ,yxonode to olqtontig oft amit omer 


i Vee sre 
‘i Ga 


onl 8 sit at ,dtoome beeseih oJ teow ti. Pnemtude sdt sxtratos 


ons ¥ bodten od tf fant co ,eaefdes beoat door Yo t{tad at 
nada oeh teifto bas eusidme ,ente to eteno ,er18dnan Roie 
RdeeTstnsxent0 fo dgoowe beresth ste eedors sit ti etnerh 
+ Denn Warernots & eerinpes events dow [esnemae" en? .esibt 
j Ritosnth etode tt ti toette bed ® asd ba& ovis ets 
iehaod ton et dove edt tit .(O2S watt) troqaoe & to qa edd 
get he neds Uae Stom tesqae fon esob di ersdmem heblnom yd 
m te |) duds 10 #tebsed [stnoxtrod to bseoymoo ets etebaod 
a? Peeneezoaace yifatosjes ef mottoeetotnt sdt seelan .198dto 
| Snore [stnemzse ent to tuto, fetberitektt sat sfadroe 
ef eee £ mot? tizooiw et dotin foednode edt aot %t 
i AG elblot syd heitea 44. yea ,aonta0o [ednostaon sont 
5-4 be Seutot sd vem tisett Acadweie ett, dele bedrse 
igen | | 2f03S! 1824) eoabind Ilene 
[.,., fedosdneie wott Batwa getow syhitd -atsaggse oft tl 
age & ,asbin Tenpsas to eta. ersig. sit te .J1eqa te? 
-* meyer Of asdote nian sdf to shae edd neented batwesnt sd 
p Eqs owdtens sgbiad S649 nk erd900 yllakoeqas etdt slat 
add. :%¢ O03 of Sasfet flea s no tlind ef seiq. e{bbiu. seo 
HO TO ,e62K2 yen mi ayewete]en yd nedorwd of cals yem etstg bas 
epewoues ‘of atasmind&é odd syote titel ad yam egatneqo to! 
ae cep Ns eYRe BG5ind edt wort 
‘peviton ¢nes: ‘Qinomazneits elitasog toemettib odd ai 
unde betwsv teom- edt to timbe forde .nevig O18 noitacexs to 
iq to ‘gieetio fsin sotfoenmoo ni enziseb supeeisstoiyg 10 Les 
5 ,efsqedo sabiad to wtewod .ayewrisde ages hartost org 


oe ig 


' ply RG 


teat etinpet ylietenes [fiw ,anrresntges at freq Inet 


148 
the foundation of the bridge, so that an impost cornice becomes 
unnecessary. por known reasons of stability the lower part of 
the arch should be built with horizontal courses to kbout half 
the rise of a semicircular arch, rather more for a.semi-ellip- 
tical arch, and about one third for a pointed arch, isé@., a " 
wall mass gradually widening upward is formed by corbelling out 
the separate courses of stone, and the arch presses against 
this as an abutment. This abutment mass should differ from the 
arch itself in material and structure in many cases, and it m 
may be made especially prominent in others (Fig. 258). At the 
same time the principle of economy, which plays such an impor- 
tant part in engineering, will generally require that to char- 
acterize the.abutment it must be dressed smooth, if the arch 
is built of rock‘faced ashlars, or that it be marked by enclo- 
sing members, coats of arms, emblems and other decorative expe- 
dients if the arches are dressed smooth on ornamental city br- 
idges. The segmental arch always requires 4 skewbvack normal to 
its curve, and has a bad effect if it abuts directly against 
the cap of a support (Fig. 259); if the arch is not bordered 
by moulded members it does not appear more ugly, than if these 
borders are composed of horizontal headers or abut against each 
other, unless the intersection is especially supported by ac 
corbels(Thé firstoradial joint of the segmental arch separating 
if from the skexback, which is wrought from a single block or 
from horizontal courses, may bé marked by a boldly profiled in- 
serted slab, the skewback itself Bey. be formed as a corbel in 
gmall bridges (Fig. 260). 

Tf the separate bridge arches spring from skewbacks quite 
far apart, or the piers are of unequal wicth, a small arch may 
be inserted between the ends of the main arches to save mater- 
ial; this especially occurs in the bridge Quattro {api at Rome, 
ahose middle pier is built on a small island in the Tiber; the 
end piers may also be broken by gateways in many cases, or out- 
let openings may be left above the abutments to remove the water 
from the bridge way. 

In the different possible arrangements many motives capable 
-of execution are given, which admit of the most varied stract- 
ural or picturesque designs in connection with offsets of piers, 
projecting caps, stairways, towers or bridge chapels, custom 


, ent Aiki 
| noo efgns sd? .esttorssoos weltwie bas eledtoy ,2esvor 
ie etneapnom ,penee stud ,eantfedioo .et{uav evidnebnsg 
toomiotins edt mt abte reveteda terid ok jee 3kt to equ 
‘ ,eldievinves vlentins ef nottonidenco sabia 
a ong to emo? edt gntved motk 10 boow to aiebikg TT 
Weeds Tago SvAd blvots ceodt .etsty yrmoRAm Adie bentdmoo 
| ed ylfenenea hinode seeds bos .e15h1iR edt tol et 
 simkot. edt te dove sit to ewtbean edt atin gnibionincs 
E, bio) oes smoge Sftod sxodt baa eegbind berevod .y 
opts eft toot s yd beweveo et yer szbaud sdt 17 
calla <afrogaee edt to tnemehnaiis O63 mort tues 
ree no misty sgbiad eft to snemegnetis odd nott doe 
“potfoutteanoo sat ,yfivaed oof 9g6r9d act beol of ton 
bed eneqe etd Soe .sldiesoq a8 Pdgil 28 9d Hluote toot 
~ te deiney eelut eect :eldierog aa teeth as etroggee 
feeb #i eamnfoo to trevoxnene beqeoth # sete ,sevleamedt 
fo to tnemeknaiae odt etioeet sebt Snaok etdt mont 
a 9 sibamvetat bus bre ont mo afsdtoq bus et]ewot ,anoili 
sven egbiad) ent asve elfad meqo to one ,8235i1d sod to 
a ak rv adeloneuniaiian edt at too barwiso sts etaomezraite 
3 stan . » epelgmexe antieine. wet 
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oP alter of mevkh aeersnicids bebbe i9ntts e168 soeasit tod 
sy to saurdid add tetaet of 10 .2akblety wiedd tnsverg 
>» [few &8 sonte ,seero dtod at [sotsasdt ek sisien vis 
) mt gnktos gonot « to soneupeenoo at catnsbre blety 
‘end dttw efgne tedto smoke to tdgf1 # Js. sedire .noit 
yt inev a vd beenso at eotot atad yedteds [siistenws et 
ae ot Ssanerts od ayawle teom (LOS .2f%) aeerttod eal 
9 to Tel uotbae 1799 ed erdt tadtedn. .so7mot sad aa nottoerlet 
j ifaw sat no gow eso10t etom to ont ti pLiew sat ot eup 
Poot dors of hosoqyo sno ,bejmetse ed teen eserstttid ya 
dob b to ted foe sfante e@ st bentdwoo ed yew eeonot add soare 
‘ysavesrotretgatiaes ,sottoeith dns sbosinzep asaoiuse 
a Iveet sdt to shutinger edt Sntved sotot. es atin ~horttoerth 
eat neyo betudittarb ed yen [len & tantera aaitoes sorot eat 
hcl no, dtaes to e1mmesstq to 9289 ni se-,e0atis8. stidas 
od bass blaow Jk gaeo serit sdt nt ,etntog stag 10 sno. JA 
Jaevo of ebned tk bnovse sdt ai sSetwobie Ilan Stitos edt 


hie aed! 


Na 


149 
houses, portals and similar accessories. The angle corbellings, 
pendentive vaults, corbellings, buttresses, monuments and gro- 
ups of figures, in brief whatever aids in the enrichment of . 
bridge construction is entirely permissible. 

If girders of wood or iron having the forms of arches are 
combined with masonry piers, these should have proper abutmen- 
ts for the girders, and these should generally be skewbacks, 
coninciding with the radius of the arch at the joint. 

y. Covered bridges and those built upon. 

tf the bradge way is covered by a roof, the structural ideas 
result from the arrangement of the supports, which bear it, a 
and from the arrangement of the bridge piers on which it rests; 
not to load the bridge too heavily, the construction of the r 
roof should be as light as possible, and the Spans between the 
supports as great as possible; these rules vanish at the piers 
themselves, when a Srouped arrangement of columns is desired. 

From this ground idea results the anrangement of closed pav- 
ilions, towers and portals on the end and intermediate piers 
of the bridge, and of open halls over the bridge way; but such 
arrangements are carried out in the most varied ways in the 
few existing examples. 

5. Buttresses and Flying Ruttresses. 

Buttresses are either added thicknesses given to walls to 
prevent their yielding, or to resist the thrust of vaults; th- 
eir nature is identical in both cases, since a wall can only 
yield sidewise in consequence of a force acting in that direc- 
tion, either at a right or some other angle with the wall; it 
is immaterial whether this force is caused by a vault or not. 

The buttress (Fig. 261) must always be arranged in the same 
direction as the force, whether this be perpendicular or obli- 
gue to the wall; if two or more forces act on the wall, as ma- 
ny buttresses must be arranged, one opposed to each force, or 
since the forces may be combined in a single resultant of det- 
erminate magnitude and direction, arsinglerforcevmay oppose i its 
direction, with a force having the magnitude of the resultant. 
The force acting against a wall may be distributed over its 
entire surface, as in case of pressure of earth, or it may act 
at one or more points, in the first case it would tend to slide 
the entire all sidewise; in the second it tends to overthrow t 


if ‘so ae - i a 
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pa ie ‘ oan se oD | 
if J i Pied rig . (ey JK , : ; 
wey { i= . w 
oot Ca RB ctl Heat 
| yee beet Oe tee peo tees opted) ot Sr egnac, 10 [lan odd 


aienco sdt ,[few @ tentrsrs eto8 aeotot stom 10 ond TD, 
fe aaator adit snttoennoo ar ateteno yiqmte aseittnd a to 
Sheva yedt ,xbod biy4ia s y eso10) edt to aotteokt 


iti tape at-ebfod 2 doidw ,eeon0t oft to tnsdtinest sat 
flew odt evow of tostotttae (SoS .8f%) FT sotet sat 
8 hat 28. ,[fen edt to 9 tdgrew ett of [anott1ego7g at 
) Ins tort te0> eat of bre lettebhve’ adi mo etiexs tik sine 
> mottehavot bre {fen ads 4 afstreten adt to t mottos 
mot fae sete ont . ‘§ = % >= = CR; %<d == 7 eodt :asddo 
ier? etom sft. ieawobkened anisd ton eosttne yatiasd 
Ifex sdt to gnibtle et eeel edt ,yrmoasm sdt ef yvesd 
eo: bestest 
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2 mitoses: sdaten edt of [anoitroqorg et sotdm ,etd? ob of 
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sseaganipel sdf of ([anoidioge1q yleerevat Oae .D nordat 
st edd to aoktoe to snif sdt no D tnroqy sad mort fie 
nortenps adt most sonte a “7% .Blagtotes of beace1gxe 
Wes . x * 2 = B seve! 
kfm novi at sotot end nadw dsdt erode osia ealomiot esl 

.Bidete stom sd [ftw teat ,{fen edt wotdsiievc of abast 
og efi tewol sdt base ypesenmiords att .tdatow ati t6tes 
fos to exif edt asgeste edt to ,so1ot edt ta notteotigge 
‘nese mane [atnemtrtedan ylorites ‘gemomad a One ,eoTek sad 


ine to. tutoq sdt dtin asbhtoatoo mottsotiqgade to tatog edt ‘to 
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x {Lew f tk .efguexe tol .yllenietxe anirettad et tr ti Ore 
seereensotet sonds nt tf{rod et d € tdpied base Jd eaodiordt 
Roe 3d gated tent eit to anotenemihS sav 79 sara ON 
nlov ‘bre tay ton etr .= : db bitdt ont to bas , - & breoee 
“edt ni ,easo tevtt edt ot ad S\I = tod pena et ad bipow 
cod esuoced flaw oft aod? .etodmun Snuot nid €\S = S§LIS = 
eateatto anives Jo tettead s Qntved yifantetxs yd sf{date 


pa tages poe nottoe to ent{ emae edd antved so190t 8 ybod 


infoq edt wort Yivers to sitaso edt to aetepel bes fadao. 


fattnt = [lex edt to eesmiotds 10 tdjtew edt 16 .momtxem s . 


| eth reso ee [fet yitverh to sifnes sat eves of beagsi1ont 9d 
mont ed tdzted atk ti a10990 etdt -sidterog es sobre cen. 


150 
the wall or cause it to bulge. 

If two or more forces acta against a wall, the construction 
of a buttress simply consists in connecting the points of app- 
lication of the forces by a rigid body, they applying to this 
body a force havinc the same line of action and magnitude as 
the resultant of the forces, which it holds in equilibriun. 

The force F (Fig. 252) sufficient to move the wall sidewise 
ig: proportional to the weight P of the wall, i.e., to the pres- 
sure it exerts on its foundation and to the coefficient of fr- 
iction f of the materials gf the wall and foundation on each | 
obber; thus Ff == Pxf;=P =-'; f ==, the area-and form of the 
bearing surface not being considered. The more firm, solid and 
heavy is the masonry, the less is sliding of the wall to be f 
feared. ) 

As for the overthrow of the wall by the force k suffictent 
to do this, which is proportional to the weight gacting at the 
centre atenneey of the wall, to the distance x of the horiz- 
ontal projection of the centre of gravity from the point of ro- 
tation C, and inversely proportional to the perpendicular a let 
fall from the point C on the line of action of the force k; or 
expressed in a formula, k = =-=, since from the equation of the 
lever, a= & X Xe 

The formulas also shows that when the force is given, which 
tends to overthrow the wall, that will be more stable, the gr- 
eater its weight, its thickness, and the lower the point of 
application of the force, or the steeper the line of action of 
the force, and k bemomes entirely undetrimental when C x x is 
a maximum, or the weight or thickness of the wall = infinity, 
or the point of application coincides with the point of rotation. 

Evidently the weight C and distance a being constant, x may 
be increased to have the centre of gravity fall as near its in- 
ner side as possible; this occurs if its height be increased 
and if it is battering externally. For example, if a wall with 
thickness b and height 3 b is built in three thicknesses, the 
proportions of the dimensions of the first being b-: b, of the 
second 2b°-: - , and of the third 4b-: -, its weight and volume 
would ba unchanged, but = 1/2 b in the first case, in the last 
= 21/Q2 = 2/3 b in round numbers. Thus the wall becomes more 
stable by externally having a batter or having offsets, according 


i il 


her 
tus yronices attesfoses tk d= x aedW .wel boxtt 8 of 
‘nO doom of tuo belfedies et [few sit medw an0900 blo» 
+ haa aixe [sotivev ent yd betoeald ef aasm edi sands sdf 
i p etse ,aasm [fan # madd stom yotdton et eesatsud A 
batts eft .yttltdate to enoittbnoo ett yt awoidtisvo anied 
J sened att te nottostory ett ,f ititie sessstoni audt easme 
Pbns note aotbltod yveed Yo seu Sat détw ..egr .beol ett 
bhent edd no too SE Bntliedioo yF .f .tdated af sesotont 
5 { sd720% ent to nottos to emtl bas notssotlqqe to tarog 
rs ptes1 of beynsite et esorttod sit tr jnevkR ayswis seom 
sos0% ed¢-to nottsotiaqgs to trtoq edt ,tinsy & to teordd 
£ [sitnso ant of Snoznst edd Yo nortoseretat sid te Hawot 
v 7 to ettreo: eit Aquosd? [eottrev 2 atin sigase1g to 
Wide Fe orvezety Yo ontl odd Moatt et X tasgned sit ; (398 
{moo msevttud sit boe Ilex sdt to D tdaisw oat otnr 
B gntm1et .sottaotiqqe to tatog att te teardt edd 
; \ ae sagetiitnd edt ntdtiw y[ettine sil taom dort 
ti Ht ot Sa qtilidete edt tt .ewolfot ae at neldorg ont audT 
) To yronooe Attn “heasetont ed of et [few dna: anent 
{ gqei ed tenn sotot sit to notssotlqqze to tntog sas of 
font yizsete sd teum so10t sit to mottos to enti odd 
Ped of ef eeerttod edi to seat sdt to noistoe{or2 end 
ets: gntiem yd Settettes od [itn Insmertupss garrt saT 
Paooes sdt ,eldiesoq ea wol es tiveav edt to 3atoq 3nr 
fesog. se Jdziew tse1R es tremindA sot Yatven of edn0 
8 ,z0stetnt sit biswot Joo mottonttemod edd Bafiledies 
Y mwetd et tent ~btewnt yinoesm odt to aixe ent sniiocat 
P ebnoqeet209. not#ibmoo. bikdt edt .ytivearg to estaao at? 
Gis of ,rotvemnt edt no exertind sdt to t1sq # to nortostonm 
ao Yi serves ett yd Settigrey none ,enem ett to mortont 
$s efdtectats sis eynineqo sonst . (TOS .4rt) riivatapeghined bes 
| habe to sntf se svode ea [[ew ee arattted eat to seed 
. /geetttcd adt tad? ,brae need een tain mort ewollo? 
Ak ysel ihe att sonte ,dtbsew eft ned? wstes1s nottosto1g e 
bm a bso! qsiveed @ ,notsoetotq beessoat se dtiw exon asseet9 
Bieston = Hessetoat se yi ned? .sbitent spo jaotlledreo. yd 
fer aeebi Savoth olttedies eft aids [ls of Ynibroso4 
omgpeiend ent ;arolfo} e2 o18 aeatdted adt to nottensot edt 
fuinshaiad es ;eesd ett ts nottostory eidersbtenoo & eetinp 


o ring 


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151 

to a fixed law. When x = b it reaches its maximum; but this w 
would occur when the wall is corbelled out so much on the ins- 
ide, that its mass is bisected by the vertical axis A. | 

A buttress is nothing more than a wall mass, safe against 
being overthrown by its conditions of stability; its effectiv- 
eness thus increases with: 1, its projection at its base; 2, 
its load, ise., with the use of heavy building stone and its 
increase in height; 3, by corbelling it out on the inside.The 
point of application and line of action of the force k are al- 
most always given; if the buttress is arranged to resist the 
thrust of a vault, the point of application of the force k is 
found at the intersection of the tangent to the central line 
of pressure with a vertical through the centre of gravity (Fig. 
266); the tangent K is itself the line of pressure at this po- 
int. The weight C of the wall and the buttress combines with | 
the thrust at the point of application, forming a resultant, 
which must lie entirely within the buttress. 

Thus the problem is as follows, if the stability of the but- 
tress and wall is to be increased with economy of material; 
1, the point of application of the force must be kept low; 2, 
the line of action of the force must be steeply inclined; 3,. 
the projection of the base of the buttress is to be kept small. 

The first requirement will be satisfied by making the spring- 
ing point of the vault as low as possible, the second corresp- 
onds to giving the abutment as great weight as possible and to 
corbelling the construction out toward the interéor, so as to 
incline the axis of the masonry inward, that is drawn through 
its centre of gravity; the third condition corresponds to the 
projection of a part of the buttress on the interior, to a re- 
duction of its mass, when permitted by the course of the line 
ofppressure (Fig. 267). Hence openings are Admissible at the 
base of the buttress as well as above a line of pressure. It 
follows from what has been said, that the buttress should have 
a projection greater than its breadth, since its stability in- 
creases more with an inceased projection, a heavier load and ( 
by corbelling out inside, than by an increased breadth. 

According to all this, the esthetic ground ideas relating to 
the formation of the buttress are as follows; the buttress re- 
quires a considerable projection at its base; as 4 wall pilaster, © 


See an) eee mh 
j oe} 


Sef 
B td3tt te noitibbs se se bebrszes | os ot at doLaw 
find eat to seomoras edt ,#f gynimedsygneise sot [Len 
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oy towol att nt sldieetmbe saa eysw100D Tol egninego 
3 28 to adT «tt bauows astord ad teum aniblted eds to sesd 
bentfont sfqmte yi bersvoo sd Sluode saeniotdt 10 dtbserd 


rach! 


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pele: it yineqoiwq yen th ,tnetze eldstebisnoo to ed sost 
a ex efit to abtsdoeth rot anineqo towo! 8 atin vedtu3! 
I .tnemsnt0 evyite10oeb 10% ytinotaoqqge ankhaotte test 
> antite gs ylno fon ,Roeeetftod Anttosioig ylanoite 
, -yrel ay s opie tod ,awobatn eds to abae r9K0l edt 
. favets sgeeeeq & amitot aidd bas ,semitsnoa sidert 
jo 10 ,seeReTII0d sit davotdt egnineqo getinuoss dedt 
«(89S .3kF) medt bavove 

ot tes betasns ed yea eaettiod edt Yo ateatio etetaqee onl 
“ah > m10 eviteidosh td3il ovisost ysu bas ,2enena anrbas 
ots neatttod edt to qot edt of svitalss esebt yatbes! 
109 alem 9a¢ dteensd bstaninist isddis ei I] -:eKno 
; taal fednemente to aoerq anrbns ef1t a 70. sasltq bontion¥ 
xe eat dotde to ,sotn200 atem edt datw Sstoeanoo ai tt 
“adit 60 nedo1d sd yam sisdmem texol to 19gqo ett ylerom 
; mten eit atqorissmt ti yltesf! 10 ;(C3S .3f7%) ear 
ogi8) eeoittod edd to shie reitie vanisge eetbh dotde 
“ot eseenn yveed. yd befeninies ad yem tk geno teal add 
ite tance asdtts heol alsT .sidsotiqqs sis eaobt Savor ont 
tes ‘to mio? edt geist afoennitg edt 10 .nottarooeb sranrt s 
ak e # te ted? 10 ,m10% febimetyg ai 3aftertntmrd ter 
i eonwyi? to equots to svifom eid ;bedatntmrh ylasiinte 
Bab sroryc & to ted? bas ,eonseetansef ant to tadt yliers 
Byaedse! ent to soefy at :otdteD edt of egaoled smote to 
387g edt rests sonsesisnsd otef edt at beyolqus bas 
eonsd ls al Juod 

t to bas seqq0 sit potbeol to mnsem svitostte teom 9al 
denen aten odd too antl leds tk everenoo events ecaort 
"saa Re tdzisn o1ttas ant aroitted edt mo wordt doidu ,2odoue 
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152 
which is to be regarded as an addition at right angles to the 
wall for strengthening it, the thickness of the buttress must 
at least equal that of the wall, or it will appear too weak. 
Openings for doorways are admissible in its lower portion, the 
base of the building must be broken around it. The offsets in 
breadth or thickness should be covered by simple inclined pla- 
nes, larger or smaller in accordance with the arrangement of | 
the whole, and which may be covered shed or gable inclined rbof 
stones to shed the rain water (Fig. 267). If this inclined sur- 
face be of considerable extent, it may properly terminate in a 
Sutter with a lower opening for discharge of the water, the 1 
last affording opportunity for decorative ornament. In case of 
strongly projecting buttresses, not only a string course at t 
the lower ends of the windows, but also a gallery, will be des- 
irable sometimes, and this forms a passage around the building 
that requires openings through the buttresses, or to be broken 
around them (Fig. 268). 

The separate offsets of the buttress may be treated as free 
ending masses, and may receive light decorative ornaments. The 
leading ideas relative to the top of the buttress are as foll- 
ows:- It is either terminated beneath the main cornice in an | 
inclined plane or a frée. ending piece of ornamental work; or 
it is connected with the main cornice, of which the whole or 
merely its upper or lower members may be broken around the but- 
tress (Fig. 269); or lastly it interrupts the main Gornice, w | 
ahich dies against either side of the buttress (Fig. 269); in 
the last case it may be terminated by heavy masses to which t 
two ground ideas are applicable. This load either consists of 
a figure decoration, or the pinnacle takes the form of a stone 
pier diminishing in pyramidal form, or that of a stone pier 
similarly diminished; the motive of groups of figures is pref- 
erably that of the Renaissance, and that of a pyramidal mass 
of stone belongs to the Gothic; in place of the latter obelisks 
and employed in the late Renaissance after the precedent of the 
tomb in Albano. 

The most effective means of loading the upper end of the but- 
tress always consists in corbelling out the main cornice above 
arches, ahich throw on the buttress the entire weight of the 
mass between two buttresses (Pig. 270); a still heavier load- 
ing is attained by means of a kind of attic story erected above 


ear . 

gedors si{gmte to batoartenoo bas sotntoo hie eat 
pofors sd? .(IVS wart) saseeadtod ont msented eoeye 
dta oot of Idwitl Snidsimbse toY eiatneqo es hestlity 
o ffewe 6 nt awobniw omtt omen edd te anted ,anrdliod 
nt sfute otdtod edt .toor edt at evodmedo [fene wi x0 
one eid? tot etemioh alder bellso-oe sad beoubort 
_steqiontng aeitmte s dttw aonshtoooe at seattitud ent 
! “Barb find es obfent hetnetie sie eeaaaitiod sot tI 
Bs yine .yflanistzs teeqqe of besn vod? tent neqged 
yam seeds ;(SYS .9iT) aottosto1g etsisbom to asece 
PYo yiteasosn sit Juodsiy tencan efietine yas mt gat te 
ta [areven ot antbhitad » to [few teqqu edt hatbivid uUls 
ston Nebiw yrev 6 ottopst eqadieq yem yodt eeee0 tedto nt 
yd tant of ,tloev sat to snemeyoeiie edt od 3ntb10008 
btxe bemtot sd yen seasettiud nssxjed asoeqe odd asvo 
“Tanned 16 BOT & @voOd# Io ,neEA8991 JSs9b 19v0 esirel 
ol . ~(E¥s “3r%) 
o xd beneintett et sestitod ait to dtbaend ay BA 
‘doidw tod .Oele eaendotdt ent at atestto ‘sd yar ote 
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{ e1sty egbind eqaditeg th satwiedto ef ti : (sts spit) 
et seta eq? to dtbessd sdt asdw ,etestio siigpezet 
ohbvss ayania sie tds atewot to eaeasaittus efans co 
atgas eds sninenssgneife sot enotstthis mo 19 ,eead 1sbaomd 

ikl -o¢8 .entetnnot .ednsmenan to asead eas 
fans ett ts baxtopes sysvla ors eszessdtad to eqnom 
bas ,et9not no yffatosqes .eintblind bas amcor batiuay 
sersnod yewtiede diin sottoonnoo at bsyolyes esmttamoe 
z (avs e3f@) aniwolfot edt ste toeregnetta to sobom fac 
as eas ve yfdosath .8 te slnas 94t wort dowd tae ei easad 
MSZ ae11F satbnoqas3t09 edt *5 te yffanoksth to 5 Je 
pitted 46x09 eidt .“9 bas “d ,*s 58 #8 99 blpow t8wOt yenriete 
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9 yen eeeesittiud to quot: sdT .aseeo yrem oi yawit)etes ‘etne 
etdt svode ankteraqe: . soe! tiedt te Beam 2ni nk satd 
6g bantetde ed yan etedmom [snoketh to een oft ys - (TVS 
tf eSeestitnd to tnemteent edt nt es .a78hq to efnemeynsite 
BP iessis to emio? walimte bas snmaloo [etionan ,styte otdtod 


153 

the main cornice and constructed of simple arches spanning the 
space between two buttresses (Fig. 271). The erches could be ; 
utilized as openings for admitting light to the attire of the 
building, being at the same time windows in a small corridor 

or in small chambers in the roof. The Cothic style indeed in- 
troduced the so-called fable dormers for this purpose to load 

the buttress in accordance with a similar principel. . 

If the buttresses are arranged inside a building, it may well 
happen that they need to appear externally, only as low buattr- 
asses of moderate projection (Fig. 272); these may terminate 
at top in any suitable manner without the necessity of vertic- 
ally dividing the upper wall of a building in several stories: 
in other cases they may perhaps require a very wide projection, 
according to the arrangement of the vault, so that by vaulting 
over the spaces between buttresses may be formed external gal- 
leries over deep recesses, or above a rou of internal chapels. 
(Fig. 273). 

As the breadth of the buttress is diminished by offsets, th- 
ere may be offsets in the thickness also, but which can only 
tbe small on account of the small thickness of the buttress; 

(Fig. 274); it is otherwise if perhaps bridge piers have butt- 
ressetike offsets, when the breadth of the pier is considerable, 
on angle buttresses of towers that are always developed on 4 
broader base, or on additions for strengthening the angles of 
the bases of monuments, fountains, etc. | 

Groups of buttresses are always required at the angles of v 
vaulted rooms and buildings, especially on towers, and they are 
sometimes employed in connection with stairway towers. The us- 
nal modes of arrangement are the following (Fig. 276); the but- 
tress is set back from the angle at a, directly at the angle 
at b, or diagonally at c’ the corresponding arrangements of a 
stairway tower would be as a a’, b’, and c’, this tower being 
one of the most appropriate Leuati ck’ for strancthentme the 
angle, at the same time playing an important part as a serv- 
ants’ stairway in many cases. The group of buttresses may com— 
bine in in a mass at their base, separating above this (Fig. 
277): by the use of diagonal members may be obtained peculiar 
arrangements of piers, as in the treatment of buttresses in 
Cothic style, memorial columns and similar forms of piers. 


bel 
otdted oat to yloqoron's eetwon ar 978 eonestdtoe, | 
gerd depm you? tent to ,enofs tadt ot hettce sd gt 2 
tipact [ersnsg e ste nadt jamtot ofdtod dst asia 
ot. salimie meldo1q s to ones mt be Holtourtedoo ps 
cs otis atin oanegeth tonnes ew , seks efbbim edd. ni, bey 
6 di of evig ot sttasb on ti tod seeotttes, eda. jo 
5 sat to sonetetxa sat battosiyen yletiina, eugt azo} 
m oft yd besiveh aniot eft of nites, bloods oy ely 
ben Yo tned Hilev y{{sr9n9y sit jsetgeh atetiso.s.q4. qu 
$Onnso doidn amtot heres tf teat emit ab, etudootkdate 
! Seine gato? egott sboloxs oT .asn0 astted. yd Ssoslzs% 
P 1 deum en giasitsvno> .b1awiosd sonagyds ot od, Bleon 
otdtoe) to emtot Liste eds nistet of ‘bentartanos 
ement tf senaoed 29e8ettiod gnixylt bag gogeerd snd, etd 
Yo seu od? biove biuode ow eiqiontrg 90. -ategio, gan ag 
i be yooo setuexil we ,ettAaq evidetoosh yleyem eq ese 
Peeom yinteiieo tod ,bstetesr od of at Rnidton elyte otdted 
[da878. to ,ednseetemed edt to to7719 etteogqo, edt otmt ike? 
ye 8 TOY behabsat enotif[tbow Yo setelov edt Antusaine 
$iud aol emtot sesf{seoqi0g,26 nodt gaiyolqms Yo bas 
hat: eft tot» eee mrot fsiece: gnisd to aager edd 
steotss fetgox ingd, 8 
it ton ob token! oodous rsdano0o ois gosagitind gays? 
sod 8 yd esotstad es to gesm ont of atiesv to taut ods 
Zestt dotdn ,fowa as yo sud ,r9iq seeatiad.. ofdixeltar 
“mt ytsersoen Smooed aseeettiud sotyla -7R0TdS 8, BOR 
m bess od oale yam yond .esfers L[erevse to enptesh neat 
ge stator bexit tad ,bediino ylotites ets BOeReTI yD, adt 
ie odd fotdn of ».9t98. .2lisn svisees. ,eis01.el(ge 1eXQ 10% 
teat seol youd. qileatt .bettinanest ad. xem, tlugy 
: 3 lak eisig pathasie est tf etacrdt Aanttiexe.eadots ge 
faqtonts edd dttw betosnnos).s18 ,s1sKOt to eoacen 
 asgbisd {atmozitod yd.10 etuat]e sagtido: yd gnkbi red 
ite ve a went ¥d 
aor ie yoldtesog ¢ 838 tooseznetta to eabor ‘gatno£ior eat 
eagarhilted neotfiasd bales tot 10, edt re 
eqee ont ,S ;betiwpet et sesittud elgnie s yleten .f 
toedd sexsetoat of .£ (ETS .B£7) yrRessoen: ets cesectt 
iteges Hefoennoo: ,xessotsied Qaiylt ond yiszasoon sie 


of a 


154 

Ruttresses are in nowise a monopoly of the Cothic style, so 
as to be suited to that alone, or that they must always be 
treated with Cothic forms; then are a general result of vault- 
ed construction, and in case of a problem similar to those sol- 
ved in the middle ages, we cannot dispense with this expedient 
of the buttress. But if we desire to give to it a Renaissance 
form, thus entirely neglecting the existence of the Cothic st- 
yle, we should return to the forms devised by the middle ages 
up to a certain degree; the generally valid bart of mediaeval 
architecture is this, that it created forms which cannot be 
replaced by better ones. To exclude those forms on principle, 
would be to advance backward. Conversely we must never feel 
constrained to retain the detail forms of Cothic employed in 
its buttresses and flying buttresses, because it knew not how 
to use others. On principle we should avoid the use of buttres- 
ges as merely decorative parts, as likewise occurred in the 
Cothic style nothing is to be resisted, but certainly must not 
fall into the opposite error of the Renaissance, of greatly 
enlarging the volutes of modillions intended for a small scale, 
and of employing them as purposeless forms for buttresses, in 
the sense of being general form symbols for the indication of 
a horizontal thrust. 

Flying buttresses are counter arches, which do not transmit 
the thrust of vaults to the mass of a buttress by a heavy and 
inflexible buttress pier, but by an arch, which itself exerci- 
ses a thrust. Flying buttresses become necessary in all basil- 
ican designs of several aisles, they may also be used when . 
the buttresses are entirely omitted, but fixed points exist, 
for example rocks, massive walls, etc., to which the thrust of 
a vault may be transmitted. Finally they lose their function 
as arches exerting thrusts if free standing piers or the angle 
masses of towers, are connected with the principal mass of a 
building by oblique struts or by horizontal bridges supported 
by then. 

The following modes of arrangement are possible;-«, ©" 9° oF 

a, three or four aisled basilican buildings. 

1, merely a single buttress is required; 2, two separate but- 

tresses are necessary (Fig. 278). 3, to increase the resistance 


are necessary two flying buttresses, connected together: (Fig. 279). 


ui 


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a ttad gotvit ent doide temtere neee ngettiod pat 
GP etdt to yataniyed ent ts betate etnseetiepe: ese yeterter 
ett steoof Gt yreesecen ylaniootiisg et th toc .ass 
‘bastnt ankifedsoo yd sbhta teaat att teetseq ytives® 
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fed [fie yest .bstee1s ylaathbroqest100 9d of e168 bas 
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| Seat tetaea yino ton yods ,sistbefites otdtod toxnal 
Petalersnss 2c: To anokve div eit vehatid oale ted ,atinavy ont 
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tind.» ont bus eseeeittnd sat to csem Letot ont tent x99 
@ Yo noltose edd ot sostinea a syiaf oe atneaery: noses 
edowe aetovenasi? yt Sedosmnom sd of aatopet yadsideds 
oo ed blnow 9nkbiiad sdt ,rno00 yifentos ees 2 doue 
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155 
4, for the same reasons but one flying buttress is required, 
though this must be very heavily loaded. 

by five or six aisled basilican buildings. 

1, the pairs of side aisles are of different heights. Two 
flying buttresses are their arranged above each side aisle, as 
on the cathedral at Beauvais (Pig. 280), or a single flying 
buttress spans the outer aisle, while a second larger one is 
thrown over both side aisles to the centre aisle, as on the 
cathedral of Notre Dame at Paris (Fig. 281). m, the side aisl- 
es are of equal height, when the inner aisle requires two,and 
the outer aisle a single flying buttress (Pig. 282). 

The buttress mass against which the flying buttress abut must 
satisfy the requirements stated at the beginning of this Chap- 
ter, but it is particularly necessary to locate its centre of 
gravity nearest its inner side by corbelling inward the masses. 

The flying buttresses are themselves to be regarded as arches, 
and are to be correspondingly treated, they will be more stable 
if in thefform of half a pointed arch, than that of a quadrant; 
further in case of very high centre aisles like those of the 
larger Cothic cathedrals, they not only resist the thrust of 
the vaults, but also hinder the vibrations of the centre aisle 
caused by violent storms. In such mighty structures 1t may hap- 
pen that the total mass of the buttresses and the flying butt- 
resses presents so large a surface to the action of the wind, 
that they require to be connected by transverse arches. Should 
such a case actually occur, the building would be concealed by 
a formal structure of battersses and arches. 

If the wall mass of the buttress is to be decorated, one must 
distinguish between those points that may be made lighter by 
openings without injury to their structural meaniné€, and those 
points which may be merely decorated by niches containing fig- 
ures, canopies, inlaid panels, etc. To utilize the upper edges 
of the flying buttress as channels for rain water, which #as 
done in the Gothic period, will seldom be repeated, being not 
a very practical procedure. 

It is self evident that a puttress can fulfil its purpose of 
strengthening the wall only when the masonry: is well bonded t 
together. hence a buttress could scarcely be constructed of 
boulders or Cyclopean masonry. A good bond can only be obtained 


ae 
1d 10 Yinoesn waldes Snore beteasao to ofddps atin 
oe taegnoita sd blvon yinoese tefdes Yo antbnod ans 
m8 TT w(e £88 .gi8) been eten dolgns tnsidnses Atiw suo 
mt bn nol .tt S fuods sreldae dtiw forat .t% € trode ef 
Tsupe ns oatvad bas tt € Bntvosetory esstitod s shrew 
iseal eI .o FSS Late af meode we bebnod [Law oF bliow 
H gnisetaruth etsetto Ife qinosem Aor1d to slind ese 
a epee mn00 vd fetntath 
i “.A2IAW UI 2DATHATO .o 
8. yiII ,yinoesn Hi egnineqo ,I pete eflsx mi egninsge 
DR SH TeWtre et seoqiwy shed? .mott to boon to aliaw at 
7 ao timrsq Of tO ,Rwobniw ste yodt aeds tdzrl to no 
ed yen isttel sat of .eyswetes brs atoob ate yede 
age sot eknitneqo \asgbiad yeusted .elonnut to alesrog 
6 Yo nottemto? ect of eehbt gotbeel ant .ote .19der 
todteq s , {fen ead Yo nottourtencs edt mor? ef loeen aller 
bab at Bathnod odd ted of .3atneqo sdt yi bevomet ar dot 
% Bottqnitstar edt to Inemteni hs ect ,soelg eno nk Set 
P .antneqo sit’ to dthiw ieslo eff mo teri? esbneqeb prod 
tins Bbaoo5e at) hepaarts zsdsiist ef Satnego sit to noitan 
3 =... ytitaesprent dtin bas ,[few od? to eeendord? edt 
Sheed ent of et00h- to esso ni tO ,moor ant of Hettimbse sc 
yy Ris . -2o8eR81 Yo sese 
Sabmeqsh tedgvapt effew at edniceqo to net¢emtot sal 
Hetntoq owt: sat no yifentt boa .sett yateolo to angen 
men Satweten oft to nottetitmtl tlee ed? ,2otnodosT ni be 
fen :,etobioc bne @iednem heats to mot edt nt gaitnego 
hme mot? fatwetem edt to [everbitin « Yo aot sad 
bce etoftetar eqi esad gaiyel 
etifew yrmosen nt samitneqd .I 
yes dove ,agsidorq vet 6 tartt enimaxe won Ifede of 
Rebbxsh tenes exoted ,effew nt egninego to seed. nt 1990 
-srooniw bos etooh to elias? 
| ~fetsms5” .8 
pays sbnod atsd# boa eflew xt etntasde to enage ot 
beiien at egntneqo worten gaiteves te ebon teelqnte sat 
2 ‘ev nt too°ed yaw atdd sistnil elzate & yi od [Lin yanoe 
st a baa jhensdeen od yseteds bloon tt ted ;(d8S 317) eyes 
#& Yoverstoeat ent’ .borest ed of et ofhhim ett ta std 


Be ls 


156 

aith rubble of quarried stone, ashlar masonry or brickwork; 
the bonding of ashlar masonry would be strongest if blocks 
cut with reentrant angles were used (Fig. 283 a). If a wall 
is about 3 ft. thick with ashlars about 2 ft. long and 1 ft. 
wide, a buttress projecting 3 ft. and having an equal width 
would be well bonded as shown in Fig. 283 b. If the buttresses 
are built of brick masonry all offsets diminishing upward must 
diminish by courses. 

D. OPENINGS IN WALLS. 

Openings in walls are; I, openings in masonry; II, openings 
in walls of wood or iron. Their purpose is either the admissi- 
on of light when they are windows, or to permit passage when | 
they are doors and gateways. To the latter may be added the p 
portals of tunnels, gateway bridges, openings for passage of 
water, etc. The leading idea in the formation of openings in 
walls results from the construction of the wall, a part of wh- 
ich is removed by the opening, so that the bonding is interrup- 
ted in one place, the adjustment of the interruption of the 
pond depends first on the clear width of the opening. The for- 
mation of the opening is further arranged in accordance with 
the thickness of the wall, and with the quantity of light to 
be admitted to the room, or in case of doors to the desired 
ease of passage. 

The formation of openings in walls further depends on the 
means of closing them, and finally on the two points mention- 
ed in Tectonics, the self limitation of the material next an 
opening in the form of raised members and borders, as taking 
the form of a withdrawal of the material from the opening and 
laying bare its interior. 

I. Openings in masonry walls. 

We shall now examine first a few problems, such as commonly 
occur in case of openings in walls, before considering the de- 
tails of doors and windows. 

a. Ceneral. 
1. Spans of openings in walls and their bond. | 

The simplest mode of covering narrow openings in walls of ma- 
sonry will be by a single lintel; this may be cut in various 
ways (Fig. 284); but it would thereby be weakened, and a frac- 
ture at its middle is to be feared. The fracture of a simple 


yer 

doyiev $ mort Pagp0In adv weoce Yltess aesl [lin fetntl 
(BBS .e3L%) etdnso ett te teqesh ebsam ti 10 . Jeirsdem 
ad ftase ea od ton [fiw sbtetebau edt no tno bsxolloa enote 
uot, 8 ti no , (28S .8f8) onoteysd # edt! bemwtot er fi ti aod 
(Ashtech .iseid of enotseris ti saefw fafoq Jedd Js shew od 
t ntoert mort befostosg od gam enota & .tom 10 dbeaoilon 
(sold ont yd ylqute teom ,seitwredto betroqqae 3ated beo! 
mma se1dt yd enoh yitest1sq teom ed yew eial «(CBS 
mk ‘atte od ysm bone Smee edt .dows as es tow dotde (d8S 
) aserec Sond dhwordt bastxs of enotaysi s aninolls yd aseso 
{ ater ‘tedt bedntot oe 9d yee attorenoy se1ds .tedtiet .(328 
Gaktsvoo to eshom rsdto bne sasdT .emely & mci pecstice teuol 
yawobaiw talfeo 10% bean ylfstosqes ete ebatnsgo wonies 
5 6d eseno teow ni yeu eenote Ankasvoo eff to atct hadore 
) emtot.setevth teom odd etimisg tr bas ,srgaesig te 
«alge ylaiem rbkanoo of yiseaseosn yleoisc;:e ef Ji sate 
etasmeaznasts oft to s5rea evi 

goo se{qria seed? to baod sft ensteonos tedw 10% 44. 
divest biwor asvitom yniwollot sdf .elfan ot santnego te 
ed th (ebnod of aattsie1 ensl Snook boteend yleooivany odd 
just, bas ynkraveo edt to achtonitenoo edt seas bemuage 
a | | 4 a -S0d2 Js. Hf -90 

r Syed yan 2enote odd .elidor bas deb {00d to yinoesm al ..f, 
| # xinosen 0 abnid eesds sonte catnest bentlont bose aaleyertet 
Seotisev of fads etaicet sobre: of betqasba 19tted .ete 
tdo ese seu ono .ytnosam nasgoloy) bas Lenogylagenl -S« 
Bais 0d 10 .ebtersbav Isdnositod s dtin [stat slietiug 8 als 
fut (QOS .gRT) letntot Latha détw eonota sardt eyne 
f jedmst, cefuzet ato? of edust sda to eenose sot synaqte 
70 febtoseyert mt bentfoat to ,selugastoet ar [soidisev 

He Sn00 @ dtiw wobate [fame 5s to siqmaxe Safdesisini oh 
do nisdass edt mort ceviz sis ak ymossm asogoloy) oF 
P xoinee edt of aetanery? (08S .RET) seveaT to Larbedtao eat 
a la: suetaso. dt St edt 

= asin aidold to besoqmoo yiteom yra0esm taluzeiti at .€ 
mot bne Y .3ft ate nevtR sew doidw to el{quexe ne ,golins. toerd 
santnsqo sdt aninnege to sebom betisy teom edd .909979 at 
Ripeeeod Anttostomg elditseog bne atatol edt .eldieeog ome 
afevitos o1s afmemsanerze dove .emtat asifuoeg of seit 


ij +. an ¢ 


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airs 


157 
lintel will less easily occur when wrought from a very hard m 
material, or if made deeper at its centre (Figs. 284, 285; a 
stone hollowed out on the underside will not be as easily bro- 
ken if it is formed like a keystone (Fig. 285), or if a joint 
be made at that point where it threatens to break. Whether 
hollowed or not, a stone may be protected from fracture by its 
load being supported otherwise, most simply by two blocks (Fig. 
285). This may be most perféetly done by three voussoirs (Fig. 
286) which act as an arch. The same end may be attained in many 
cases by allowing a keystone to extend through two courses (Fig. 
286). Further, three voussoirs may be so jointed that their 1 
lower surfaces form a plane. These and other modes of covering 
narrow openings are especially used for cellar windows, the a 
arched form of the covering stones may in most cases be chosen 
at pleasure, and it permits the most diverse forms (Fig. 287), 
since it is scarcely necessary to consider merely the decorat- 
ive side of the arrangement. 

As for what concerns the bond of these simpler constructions 
of openings in walls, the following motives would result from 
the previously treated ground laws relating to bonds, it being 
assumed that the construction of the covering and jambs is to 
be in cut stone. 

1. In masonry of boulders and rubble, the stones may have i 
irregular and inclined joints, since these kinds of masonry a 
are better adapted to random joints than to vertical ones. 

2. In polygonal and Cyclopean masonry, one must seek to obt- 
ain a suitable lintel with a horizontal underside, or to arra- 
ance three stones with radial joints (Fig. 289); further, to 
arrange the stones of the jambs to form regular jambs, whether 
vertical in rectansguler, or inclined in trapezoidal openings. 

An interesting example of a small window with a bond suited 
to Cyclopean masonry is here given from the eastern choir of 
the cathedral of Treves (Fig. 290), belonging to the end of 
the 12 th century. 

3. In irregular masonry mostly composed of blocks with reen- 
trant angles, an example of which was given in Fig. 7 and found 
in Greece, the most varied modes of spanning the openings bec-. 
ame possible, the joints and possible projecting bosses giving 
rise to peculiar forms. Such arrangemerts are entireln pleasing 


. i unem Yo rwio0sKtedo eeenttot ent tot tegd1q baer 
Beae bat Be oot oot wen eft to enobnin edd ni as betootis ton 
| . , (reg “ata 
dainite Setrtsgp to tlivd ylteag. eraoe\em hexin ni .d» 
asd mt ebed awevix mott @enote 10 exoitd to yi 
Bae .efotnt! yd bewsvoo sd bisofe ekaineqo sft alors ae 
aos eeode fantene sodote yi to j;aeib hood edt foidn 
m dooe to eefqmexs [ottinesd .sonedo yom ti es e2aote 
its ste gean elbbtm sd¢ Yo Soe boizeq nemod eat to y1 
mor? bre sever? mt sosfeq [siregmt edt not? encisarteslf{s. 
oS SOS .aztF) moxtoeG at dotodo tefooth edt to asendtud 
retanoa Baigatige edt ucled yinoesm edt ofqmexe tatit dd al 
ip to semds dtiv exotad to esatn0o se1dt to enoisentes{s to 
gd febtossqett fom ste sedors edt to edotad sdt ‘oldden bein 
ab yitefoze1 ems eonota oft baa ,aioti midd ylasem e716 
pie gaol -ent S\e €r ata edotid sd? .ataldes es ton tad 
fOtdt suena sit eved ainiot baa ebod edt bas. dotst emt 
K-28 ssieced dons ons at eftt teanrel od? .ekoind eff 
Are e1a eencde heaeeth saT siotdt went S\E S gd aneupe 
M) eeso teal od oP .bsord went Sr\tt Sot S\I \ bas Zonds 
4 tw etioezuov 28 Stfanietis stinets to eioold tegdal ,faes 
etetenocd yraogen ent bas .etine1z to etaengert, r9{lene 
@ puted “asigas sdt .efddo1 stiner3 asivgsia1i ylear 
e03in818 Yo siscold beasoth yfsslsser asksal yd 
10! nt ment setwiedto bayolqas mobieq ek motsivortet esiG | 
— fenters .,onote togedoisd to esdors rsloger Adie eoites 
pee -s00ed9 yam ee etude 
mq gedt eXtl yrmoess ae{[des to ehadd asiluosy al .¢ 
ot seanti10t edt bar eslqe nt dorutio © sort ,bediroesh 
fsate s yd bereveo .Samt0? sites ayninego wonten slgaie 
mk egnineqgo yilersney betebieanoo ybseiwls saved oF 2d 
minezo bes ewxobntw aafleo ot es ,enage {sea 10% yrs0ssm 
“sabin to ea@0 cI .ddktl to sotsatmbs tot ebati Ife 
yw Aniszevoo t£edt benimaxe yiletoeqes ed ot at exedt 
a Iion es, (betatoy bne-talnostotmse ,feottqifle. ,Latnenzee) 
mt baod edt dtin noftoennoo ai aodors seeds to yrtintoy edt 
“ae eYiaosan edt 
fio et eobetixs sat ,fors adit to anotaeens oeiesn fon oT 
@ are attosenoviedt 10 ,sobaittat: edt of Islleisq neerh 


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158 
and proper for the fortress character of many buildings, if 
not affected as in the windows of the new palace in Baden-Baden. 
(Fig. 291). : 

4. In mixed masonry partly built of quarried stone and part- | 
ly of bricks or stones from river beds in herringbonesibond, t 
as a rule the openings should be covered by lintels, against 
abich the bond dies; or by arches against whose top the bond 
stops as it may chance. Beautiful examples of suth mixed mason- 
ry of the Roman period and of the middle ages are shown in the 
illustrations from the imperial palace in Treves and from a b 
buttress of the Nicolai church in Bautzen (Figs. 292, 293, 294). 

Tn the first example the masonry below the springing tensists 
of alternations of three courses of bricks with three of quar- 
ried rubble’ the bricks of the arches are not trapezoidal but 
are merely thin bricks, and the stones are regularly dressed 
but not as ashlars. The bricks are 13 3/8 ins. long, 1 9/16 
ins. thick, and the beds and joints have the same thickness as 
the bricks. The largest tile in the arch measures 21 5/8 ins. 
square by 2 3/4 ins. thick. The dressed stones are 5 1/2 ins. 
thicg and 7 1/6 to 8 11/16 ins. broad. Tn the last case (Fig. 
294), larger blocks of sranite alternate as voussoirs with 
smaller fragments of granite, and the masonry consists of ent- 
irely irregular granite rubble, the angles being strengthened 
by larger regularly dressed blocks of granite. 

Opus reticulatum is seldom employed otherwise than in combi- 
nation with regular arches of bricks or stone,. against which 
abuts as may chance. 

5. In peculiar kinds of ashlar masonry like that previously 
described, from a church in Naples and the fortress in Florence, 
simple narrow openings were formed, covered by a single voussoir. 

6. We have already considered generally openings in ashlar 
masonry for small spans, as in cellar windows and openings of 
all kinds for admission of light. In case of wider openings, 
there is to be especially examined their covering by arches, 
(segmental, elliptical, semiciecular:and pointed), as ell as 
the jointing of these arches in connection with the bond of 
the masonry. 

To not weaken the crown of the arch, the extrados is either 
drawn parallel to the intrados, or the voussoirs are arranged 


sia ‘ oy y i de ot) i Ad . 77 bhi ot a] 
mj b i ' LM 
ho 's i e " 


get 
odd test .bttod basses sat dst sonabt0508 mr 
Sf sine to efatenod forms sdt YI .tdatend betrupe: oar 
( mont Hood of tigoittrh yrev ed Jon [fin tf , send 
stom fostts yLeotace [ftw dow. edt sonte ,ytscesm cal 
a eat eaoeset [eottostg aot. .tngted ai esetnce 
hed f[esuten dt of betiva sd ot a8 asgodo of ed teum dove 
#B\2 §o of B\E 2h teow te Bnted ,snots Yo ese iw0m ads to 
Sele: eldsistetg at ti yti{tdste Yo enoneg tot dod 
tersd? .cldiesoq ee attoenvov yosu ee Yo fore edt 
ef? 16 dois add to noftatvib ed? sesd of Ifen od 
pod teum thopanov edt conte <enose sdt to teyal to 
ft edt obivib of baa sobsttnt adt mo madd aobeistxs 
to anonsen aot conte etter sceqe ety ee senote tren ee 
‘yd do1a edt Yo neqa ent meeeel of sasd at at ytilid’ 
ntdtie yiev yeu nofervit atdt One .tnomtaca edt Te 
‘2 bien 6 ei:  watiogl taster 
fend to bas ethoesnov ofat dors sdt Yo motetvid eat 
qe gon edomOiatvih tedste ti ,ebrlfoo fin esracoo 
‘bae aseiv0d) Yo cotsivib edt of bistst al .1sdte edt 
soldiasoy ome asend gatwollot edd 
tis etdzied§.d ;tdbted [aups to ete asercoo. adt .¢ 
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ot edt ao ylegtine ebneqeh nolionrteanod eit soni 
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medmeme ot fnetoktIos si JL pnoteivih to shom f[atoage e 
ated? sved bluode esdors [stnenjoe bebeo! ylynowte Jedd 
Hite godona (0 ces sRrt) atasmtods. edt Svewot daecetoat 
od at owse Sd te dA Ces 3%) enworto atest baanos seit: 
coca vad biaote Bs) ,levpeno ete eattostnov to edtbite«e edt 
ale igs  ,atnsntode edt medi swoiw adt base 
ws edt 10) mage obin to eedote to antiniot: adT 
EF adi of gnthioscoe ‘bekmatie sd of eyvanle ek ekoineqe 
~dotad to ef [law edt cody [etietem add to Bag 009 edt 
) Betoustencs ad ‘eyenfe blaote 4 Akad Yo 2t tlsstt dow 
Boss nem edotad edt 10 ,mrct Sersqet to exotad 10 ertoaen 
5 Lfe nt ted .beqede ehber od etnrot witror edt bra talod 
feisy fom gotad © to xobstixe ett eden ot ead ed [tn tt 
dotid ni efdeteterg agen!s ei tt rot ,sobartnt ent of 


. 159 
in accordance with the-coursed bond, that the keystone may have 
the required height. If the arch consists of onle 3, 5 or 7 st- 
ones, it will not be very difficult to bond them with the ash= 
lar masonry, since the arch will scarcely affect more than four 
courses in height. for practical reasons the divisions of the 
arch must be so chosen as to be suited to the natural height 
of the courses of stone, being at most 15 3/4 to 23 5/8 ins. 
thick; for measons of stability it is preferable to sompose t 
the arch of as many voussoirs as possible. Therefore it would 
be well to base the division of the arch on the beast thickness 
of layer of the stone, since the voussoir must be @détdervat the 
extrados than on the intrados, and to divide the intrados in 
as many stones as the space permits, since for reasons of sta- 
bility is is best to lessen the span of the arch by corbelling 
at the abutment, and this division may vary within tolerably 
distant limits. 

The division of the arch into vorssoirs and of the wall in 
Courses will collide, if either division be not dependent of 
the other. In regard to the division of courses and voussoirs, 
the following cases are possible. 

a, the courses are of equal height; b, heights of courses a 


are alternately equal; c, the courses have unequal heights; d, 


voussoirs are of equal width; e, widths of voussoirs are alter- 
nately equal; f, their widths are unequal. . 
Since the construction depends entirely on the form and span 
of the arch over the opening, each separate case will lead to 
a special mode of division; it is sufficient to remember here, 
that strongly loaded segmental arches should have their depths 
increased toward the abutments (Fig. 295 a); arches with high 
rise, toward their crowns (Fig. 295)b); at the same time when 
the widths of voussoirs are unequal, they should be wider to- 
mara the crown than the atutments. 


The jointing of arches of wide span or the covering of narrow 


openings is always to be arranged according to the heights of 
the courses of the material when the wall is of brick; if the 
arch itself is of brick it should always be constructed of vo- 


uvssoirs or bricks of tapered form, or the bricks man be rectan- 


gular and the mortar joints be wedge shaped. But in all cases 
it will be bes to make the extrados of a bricg arch parallel 


to the intrados, for it is alwags preferable in brick ~™ 


3 ~ 
ee ae 


a 
hy, 


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a )eeastean tod Lemiot ed yl[no fon bivox 
| | otatmeonoo ton dowte Aotad & eism ot bertesh ef tt tT 
aT AdWS «Ri%) yrnomew teldee nt as sobaiixe beyyjeste # dé 
f / bne [etnosttod yd asdtie .ayew ont ot snob ad. ase 
genre atid tod setatot, anttiotl {ether bas Jetnosisos 
yttieq ,oulev [anptonrte elderebienco on eesesog bleon 
6d ot svad Slvow adoisd sdt sonte .seso baooee sdé ot 
mem mi heitites, ed bluow tod .segede teqget of baddon 
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image [feme rot (s \RS .Btt) ebne att brsvot sore xXoind Jat 
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sO fedoms nemod efowe en toe yllass bloow tod ysaeqqa yi 
9 eit of yino cranes stedd exo axoriad to ero Leteven to 
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mottenret [s eit yd terit betetooeh ed yam dots oft .f 
bod yen etiogevov ,yimonam Aotid ot es boyclgae alsinedem 
» tot svitom bnooee A .fots sdt to stots oft osented bet 
yitegionizq ett antinsoocs ak atatenoo no1a odd 3xnites 
to etmtot edd bose .atntoq actgeivge .nworo sds ee 
seatened fodod edt to nottonitenco Aorrd edt (4 TOS 
bos etroqst ,eeqotaysd si1sdw ,wewx Bidd at bestnetoere 
»eit to xedove mt beosly stew ,Stwtqo7 18 atatol ge 
das sew done efit to sebetamet sdt slide .ebatd tne 
sonseetanes watiaetl sit ogls tad doted edt ylno tok 
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etofe , aynt{foo beretesfy elamie ni oals bus eseuod t9lqate 
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ree 


ay 


anit 
et to 


160 
to employ a normal form of brick throughout; wedge-shaped mor- 
tar joints are preferable to tapered bricks, and to dress off 
the outer ends of the bricks to unite well with the wall bond 
would not only be formal but useless. 

If it is desired to make a brick arch not concentric but wi- 
th a stepped extrados as in ashlar masonry (Fig. 296), this — | 
can be done in two ways, either by horizontal and vertical or 
horizontal and radial limiting joints» but this arrangement w 
would possess no considerable structural value, partichlarly 
in the second case, since the bricks would have to be cut and { 
rubbed to taper shapes, but would be justified in manywcases 
for decorative reasons; further one would scarcely increase 
the depth of a pointed brick toward its crown, or of a segmen- 
tal brick arch toward its ends (Pig. 297 a) for small spans, 3 
since cutting the bricks would make the strength of the arch 
doubtful, and to offset the bricks would make the arch appear 
ugly. To construct the arch of several concentric rings is 
structurally purposeless, since only a strengthened arch with 
radial joints extending through its entire 8epth would not on- 
ly appear but would really act as such. Roman arches composed 
of several rows of bricks owe their strength only to the excel- 
lent mortar and not to their construction. 

8, The arch may be decorated first by the alternation of the 
materials employed as in brick masonry, voussoirs may be inser- 
ted between the bricks of the arch. A second motive for decor- 
ating the arch consists in accenting its principal points, such 
as the crown, springing points, and the joints of rupture (Fig. 
297 b)* the brick construction of the Dutch Renaissance is ch- 
asracterized in this wau, where keystones, imposts and stones P| 
at joints 6f rupture, were placed in arches of the most differ- ] 
ent kinds, while the remainder of the arch was entirely of brick. — 

Yot only the Dutch but also the Italian Renaissance sought to 
relieve arched construction by accenting the springing points, 
points of rupture and crowns, especially in the doorways of the 
simpler houses and also in simple paastered ceilings , whose 
plainness required the invention of original motives. A few ex- 
amples of such motives for doors of houses from Como, Bergamo, 
Bellagio and Brescia, might find place here (Figs. 298, 299, 
300 )5 the latter is more characteristic than beautiful or wor- 


thy of imitation; all the joints of the splayed soffit and jambs 


re ee 


{ sdt to tiyted edt te tntog sfynte # mor? stsibsr 
te tenets % bedtan seodt to noktqeox® sat atin tu® 
j$oedidors made ekdt to sebt edT .een0 mete Jud leet 
1 > 1) Jefdanotsostde aedt satwisdto bebreber od 
f bosodealy yrentb3o sot sidatiga svitom oissditee oA 
ain 10 1008 dave: dome feo sdt anivevoo ni atetenoo 
Yea doidu ef etoted beoaely enote to dale s yd 22 
xox ed? .sretlot? yt besetoosb sd 10 s3b9 beh 
dul ‘does, yam atatos, sind ody te seod? es [few en 
Bee } ew ono edt 
tnsateetd esr fas etidos ayswls ef Seoqmsk edt 
~ ” To°abiside Jebeod .ossifot j;eebom earvevid teon ont 
t Snted snoteyet ed? w1efoevedo att tot oldetioe ons 
as aesiivpss wotfeuitenoo before ne to tniog tastioymt 
a6svih toom ef% wevted osfe tr eseeod yts7 at «tasooe 
pot Ledros & @8 bemtot sd gemtifemoe sioteisdd yam boas 
Wioqyns of betnesat st wenttesoe .sotn109 Botsostomg & 
fiad edt to isdman edt yntreed sno to sute to Siete 
lod 8 od eyewls Iltw snoteyex s to moivstoces teslion 
. ed yea ..0%6 .elsatne to ehbeod .amelims otlodmye 
% to sonstroqat Bae seo0qiwq edt of anibicooa best B 10% 
hae bra SdBif bos [lew Yo easnvotdT .S 
: e@wobtiiw bas stoob to 
metnk ers esasD Yeon ot effew [entetxe ar eynitnsg0 
p tea os gesooa Sviy of to ,mooy 6 OF FAREL To noreerabe 
j -OF ei seogte7 Jeerib seodn ,asisesidee ceyl .alémt 
ee bebisiss ed oF eyenle eta ,sittoetowg « to shenesy 
do eft “Tot. beametts of od teon yedt sonte .tdnet tot 
‘Qniaeetwe ol sbemtea ef ofttostorqg edt dotdy ts neon 
ba Bi ewobatw vot eebi gothas! edt .ellsw ni etninsyo 
jo Sct somed jaesoDe Stat tftost ot eroob tot ptdatl to 
fenistxe ne ,obtenk to sbtetno tedtie benehin od bloode 
y fepraf yd Been etoob sob sldarttoe to yteamsoen at ani 
‘panordt befool sd of don awobsiw tot Das ,xn0e1t9q to 
rtm fentetat me yenobntw dowdo gain to sero ni ge 
et totep ed of @f moo7 5 node 8100 yasm tot sidatie 
w sot ogfe ;ato0f doawndo dns ovtestt tot es .afjoeq to 
t Pa ve eR hs amr mee tamglate getdool rot bebnesar 
\ee nea a | se ieee oiidug 
ae hee a AA Sip. 


“agian gd 

* 

CAs 

Lie } 

7 whe 

‘ edn 
Pees. 

APS aes 
oats 
avg ying 
es 

oe 
ea - 

‘or 


161 
radiate from a single point at the heisht of the human eye. ~~ 
Rout with the exception of those marked f, these joints are not 
real but sham ones. The idea of this sham architecture cannot 
be regarded otherwise than objectionable. 

An esthetic motive suitable for ordinary plastered masonry 
consists in covering the real arch over door or window openin- 
gs by a slab of stone placed pefore it, which may have a moul- 
ded edge or be decorated by foliage, the key stone»and imposts, 
as well as those at the rupture joints may_each be treated in 
its own way. 

The impost is always accented and its treatment may follow 
the most diverse modes; foliage, heads, shields of arms, etc., 
are suitable for its character. The keystone being the most i 
important point of an arched construction requires a@ special 
accent, “in wany cases it also serves the most diverse purposes, 
and may therefore sometimes be formed as a corbel to support 
a projecting cornice, sometimes be intented to support a bust, 
shield of arms or one bearing the number of the building. The 
noblest decoration of a keystone will always be a human head; 
sympolic emblems, heads of animals, etc., may be substituted 


for a head,according to the purpose and importance of the building, 


2. Thickness of wall and light and spacial character 
of doors and windows. 

Openings in external walls in most cases are intended for 
admission of light to a room, or to give access to mén or an- 
imals. Even embrasures, whose direet purpose is to permit the 
passage of a projectile, are always to be regarded as openings 
for light, since they must be so arranged for the object to be 
seen at which the projectile is aimed. In arranging plans of 

openings in walls, the leading idea for windows is admission 
of light; for doors to facilitate access; hence the opening 
should be widened either outside or inside; an external widen- 
ing is necessary or suitable for doors used by large numbers 
of persons, and for windows not to be looked throush outward, 
as in cage of high church windows; an internal widening is de- 
sirable for many doors, when a room is to be quickly emptied 
of people, as for theatre and church doors; also for windows 
intended for looking through, like those of dwellings and many 
public buildings. 


a ng ge 


| 
4 


a) eS aay 


” } Bink gaktego: nn a9st0dn antbioeb tot aorsst sdtonA 
wmk shom of% ef ebiant to sbissuo bestetins ed Ife 
blot fon 916 seeds Ti :neyo ot oe waders 10 as00b 
0° % edt ted? o@ sifaat beysige sd. astte trom gann 
| t <atblot ‘th phLOE 231%) duet, edf bnoysd soso. Jor 

cena ef yam antnego edt bas. tenoTIeg od yan dmst 
$tt ylouttns ot bevtupsa et dade 10 100b edd tI 
od somktemoe Iftw ebient gnitoslorq erstaalig 
»tfew adt to soatinsa teant sat mort noftosto tq seode 
ees. dota? yltastoittve gon ef flew edt tr ,oldsisbdie 
‘fostovy ton yeu Ji ted? .dess ao t0o90b saitine sat 
‘tosto7 yen yewtoob eds ,atooh Yo sesso ai yleerevasd | 
tbe ‘sheeesq e¢atifiost of dtod .{Isw edt to obiatso ett 
ewes: 1. ‘Raineqo oft batten ead? .natledea anisvosio1y # bio? 
i# To eaentoid? edt tin bentatdo ed biooo nett raqesh 
Onattins tot yIseesosn 8d yen Jnomegastiea efit .onole 
Aotagnib{ind telinmte base elIad ytro. .ze0elaq .aedo 
Pe Hetty ve. , ¥ | ~esifdnes 
Ss). senobmie Bae et00b anieolo to enaell .& 
Bqo yliaerorss? od ov Aebnesnit efiew at eaminego [le t07 
patent bntnimteteb at bis [ftw tasmentopes eidt .beeoss 
. e78 enobotw foe si00b asl ¢eanstoeh .nely nr taens 
Snoteetnbs Yo Fnwo2e no e{ntllenb to emoor tot efdas 
aig 10% dae sbateofo bas aninego to ease ,yientot sat 
aa benseqe (finven si tent .gatnego odd sroted santas 
shapes doifdu .egmtbliud oifdoq at .ttote Savon 10 Led 
. asoot to dtqeb edt to Ingosoe no swobaiw bag st080b 
bate bae e2t00b ett ,enoe1eg to 19dmum tetesig 843 bee bad 
behtvih ed yaw awobatw sit to ,bebeed bavor ad ot boon 
toaga yd bensqo Podloe ewobnir s9Hi% etinzp ti anoil 

hi egathl ied baa esdorsds to sod? eiif goitvelitasy 10? 
at > atot eft ao aesl boeqebh .ehbord [fa to eeeoging yter 
ben of bsd Snes ytseasoennys yllatens3 af JI -aninsgo edd 
pg ent seao ni neve , (SOF .2f7) aot de, bedntog er0c0h 
Yo eno at eidd ;hetniog ef yathliad edd nt snilisverg 
: ).t6 tivtge edt Yo tasr0nRt efootidots to eilivst nomaoo 
te sbasioed gt arner eit siaa of yreresoen tt Satverled 
Wins | ‘sewobain odd: 
dt ,soblea ans besntog: e700b sbhax hoebat elyte ofdso) aAT 
“vondpagapdann) tooh edd tnd ,hetatog qilsueo een dove snivailer 


arene | 


ae: 
17 


162 

Another reason for deciding whether an opening in 4 wall sh- 
all be enkarged outside or inside is the mode in which the b | 
doors or sashes are to open. if these are not folding the ope- 
ning must often be splayed inside so that the door or sash does 
not project beyond the jamb (Fig. 301); if folding, the splayed 
jamb may be narrower and the opening may be splayed outside. 

If the door or sash is required to entirely fit into the jamb, 
pilasters projecting inside will sometimes be needed (Fig. 302), 
whose projection from the inner surface of the wall may be con- 
siderable, if the wall is not sufficiently thick to receive t . 
the entire door or sash, that it may not project inside. 

Conversely in case of doors, the doorway may project from t 
the outside of the wall, both to facilitate passage and to af- 
ford a projecting shelter, thus makind the opening in the wall 
deeper than could be obtained wit: the thickness of the wall 
alone. This arrangement may be necessary for entrances of chur- 
ches, palaces, city halls and similar buildings for public as- 
semblies. 

2. Means of closing doors and windows. 

For all openings in walls intended to be temporarily open or 
closed, this requirement will aid in determining their arrang- 
enent in plan. Rectangular doors and windows are always prefe- 
rable for rooms of dwellings on account of admission of light, 
the joinery, ease of opening and closing, and for placing cur- 
tains before the opening, that is usually spanned by a segmén- 
tal or round arch. In public buildings, which require larger 
doors and windows on account of the depth of rooms to be ligh- 
ted and the greater number of persons, the doors and windows 
need to be round headed, or the windows may be divided by mul- 
lions if quite wide; windows seldop opened by special mechanism 
for ventilation like those of churches and buildings for ordi- 
nary purposes of all kinds, depend less on the form of spanning 
the opening. It is generally unnecessary and bad to made the 
doors pointed at top (Fig. 304), even in case the form of arch 
prevailing in the building is pointed; this is one of the most 
common faults of architects ignorant of the spirit of Cothic, 
believing it necessary to make the doors pointed because of 
the windows. 

The Gothic style indeed made doors pointed but seldom, the 
relieving arch was usually pointed, but the door terminated 


¢ 


4 


a 


ear 
a uietresbeasoh: too ef erat 10 fetntt tidiertes yd 
o teat gatne70. fentetat edt (SOF .QkT) betnicg sban at 
-etitivts aaa Binoo 1005 sat some fore {stasmzeag # ovad 
é t{nev [ennut betntoy © dtiw been ever done betntog & 
qo ebtsvot [siisdem edt to amtot aitimil > 
aoqxs TOtTstat edt <2yelqe bas eatebiod .enottoeioxg ee 
eq eooitey ak’ tdgeodt edt beneroq ySeorle oved oF 
{t eves ‘gmtot sveonod bas xevnoo dttw bststooasa asebt 
joe vela YodT .am1ot oftentes to ebatiti{on a tot atnions 
Ytesed}? elfen ak exntmedae to sevartidots edt at treq 
p/eotodo: ont oe auntneqo seedt to noktouttanos 
ae | shovarttiors stedt %o ante 
nif to yar @ YO notfostth edt ed (@Of .yrt) ds te) 
Be isos ‘© tel bas .ebtetao begisine antpeqo os d3anoudt 
1987 18 $tttas odd ted? tnebive ek th p{fsew sad to welder 
MeRtO? Ta yelqe sit sett .Heb{oom of sd yam antnego adt te 
7 : Seat ,netttet whatbloom edt eotl. dotde midtiw thot 
oe & gi Beoaslges of yom (cd COP .3kt) b of 9 mont 
ffeiea sit uffeatt stebin {lite evartidors ont exen of 
reise od Srewtot hevem ed yao eetgtam tiest bne ete 
ek M90) ,eee0 tart? edt uf es 6 o yale odt gatveel .(o ede 
ecm a pee tattt ond edd nt Lgnibloow a yd beoeiqer sd yam 
re stint sit nf nadd t9tee1g ef slttowq sat to b 5 ddbee 
puis ont af Lanpe ek gniasqs eae to taenetrafne et 
iA) -tnsren rh bas Helttorg edt To eddbin adt ood .eseeo 
‘wert sdf (eaaknsdo edt Rabgrot to elatonitq eras of 
bas .oveitidiqa ent ssn ot shin wos to ,e0 Of nego 
for18 to Saki etdt.to eiqgtontiy ed? sbatneqo edt yale 
P Ifan eft nt antnsqo edt tact noktqapess: at no baesd 
‘ed? tot beyolgms ef brod awaa ana mew horeetno yi 
qwhosen Yo ehaki tedto ai 10 (dolad I snose to stentodn 
i atoind to etaides to teyeal & yd beaolone ef 3ntaeqgo 
(0 S5f04 sdt wontatetsd efgtontzg (saptoaxte bnooee eAT 
| Satneqo edt gnteolone at atetenoe ynineqe ma act xath 
Og) gE) qinogsn edt aoth foltdw tanteyga ,evettidors Leto 
$0) we 1o°X9itd ,elddat ,neeqoloy? ,relhes ed yaa yinoess 
o . hota 10 Brote Yo af svertifoms.edt olide ati 
nen bastetohas ayente ew cost [law yi tadd [Lacer aw tT 
8 ‘ecg oda ‘pi tl doidw mort ithe Taokitev’ [ashi xo 
a eens 9 Mi 
a 
yee 2 


163 
by a straight lintel or this is cut segmental; but if the door 
is made pointed (Fig. 304) the internal opening must commonly 
have a segmental arch, since the door could not be opened if 
a pointed arch were used with a pointed tunnel vault above. 
4. Limiting forms of the material towards openings 
as projections, borders and splays, its interior exposed. 

We have already pursued the thought in various places, that 
ideas associated with convex and concave forms give the leading 
points for a multitude of esthetic forms. They play a chief p 
part in the architraves of openings in walls. Therefore the 
construction of these openings determine the choice of the sec- 
tions of their architraves. 

net a bd (Fig. 305) be the direction of a ray of light passing 
through an opening enlarged outside, and let c be a parallel 
ashlar of. the wall; it is evident that the entire enlargement 
of the opening may be so moulded, that the splay a bo forms the 
limit within which lies the moulding. Further, the entire space 
from c to d (Fig. 305 b) may be replaced bp a border profile 
to make the architrave still wider; finally the parallel ashl- 
ars and their margins may be moved forward to the point e (Fig. 
205 c), leaving the splay c d as in the first case, or this 
may be replaced by a moulding; in the two first cases the total 
width c d of the profile is greater than in the third case, t 
the enlargement of the opening is equal in the first and last 
cases, but the widths of the profiles ard different. According 
to this principle of forming the openings, the free choice is 
open to us, of how wide to mae the architrave, and how much to 
splay the opening. The principle of this kind of architrave is 
based on the assumption that the opening in the wall is formed 
by omission, when the same bond is employed for the entire wall, 
whether of stone or brick; or in other kinds of masonry the o 
opening is enclosed by a layer of ashlars or bricks (Fig. 306). 
The second structural principle determines the choice of moul- 
ding for an opening consists in enclosing the opening by a spe- 
cial architrave, against which dies the masonry (Fig. 307).The 
masonry may be ashlar, Cyclopean, rubble, brick or any other 
kind, while the architrave is of stone or brick. 

Tf we recall that by wall face we always understand the real 
or ideal vertical plane from which project the paneled ashtars, 


ee 


epi : / ‘ oe Wave mie? nf ee ie 
tales } , ai iy ts, . f 20 ‘ 


and Sas seott to esoet edt ofinw eshtontoo dotdn bas 
peer eiqrontty tert? sae Afiw somebtoooe nt ,etnrot 
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itdext-nt tostow yam ti tod ,soat [Lew adt brined ayer 
a aq ontag tod elatpmisg bandes edt avin eonabrooos ni 
t ovad ot as ce .banidwoo tevan bas hetaiages sd avanle 
por eesian .{{aw edt to sost sit mort SoeLory overt: 
s eulawe saiviedto tot ,{fsw eid mort etersqer ylleas 
aed sevetttiors eft to xoofd dose mort tod sd 
gmat obte yiev eved ekaiweqo sat ,allew dois yrev at 
ie 8k 2Sdtto eyew ont nt eavelies to betosrdenoo st yam 
pophorg st yalge edt stedw .(B80F .2iT) d boe & te nel 
sida baa o salq edt ot gnibroscs to ,yfenpifdo tee aeno 
lateatto aelogmatoey yd baoslyet ems ayelge oat sr9dn 
\Ratioe_omg eA everttidow edt tneeenge: b hee d sely 
rafeywetost sit 6 eaeo mY .sost [law sot mort ytd 
sanonenins hae ea | of ennoloo [fame yt heoslqgs 93 
ifeme yt bel itt ad yam efeatto e137 neexted esfyne 
ds yaa at belitiag esdow frogace alstiqes saoda , (OLE 
 aote eyeweter ,ewohain ~R100b no Leatoeye .d 
ite: foteatmbs 10% ove allen nt szatnszo .botate ybsowle 6A 
aeyeretes “e6ntt Ife to eoascerq eis to ,ewohatw as tant 
‘fove enans : , baa ."otew 10% ,e93bi1d yewoteR .elenout to efetrog 
eyoaatang bt ev awobarW .ote .nottalitnevy tot .eatseraidne es 
Mo. 0 obai ite eit! efxa’ feokisev «8 dtiv settis ,eflex Laott 
Sain aml 8 toode feyneiis ewohatw {fe ehofont en doinw at 
| yons poen Tredt of anibaoooA .akaklteo ng addutigqde ove 
fs .peoelag boa wQrtbhlied offdeq ,ekarlfeeh of arofed ylleq 
pk alf{ex at eyninege editoash | wor [fsde 8% .eedonoto of 
a ine me 7 195% kaknol lot 
. garbhltad aaténg te s#ods .S j;ahntifen’ to awobaiw ii. 
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pseptel .2 yetoob .\ -:2e8 agathited otidaq bane steving 
‘i 0. Sean {adqumiat bee aote, eaoxtiot bas ysto gatboloné 
Brsahseet agnbneqo SI jeeghiad yanetes If jeLenngds Yo elasi0g 
- yots heenenmeare .nottaltiney t0oY ,19ten to ahtedo 
-s5envod toe ewobniy ft 
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et bevised ed yam aeviton shade Naa tuatioqet teom etd teat 


Riis) 


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if 
8 Awe 4? 40 


i jend : 
eel rer 


164 
and which coincides with the faces of those having triangular 
joints, in accordance with the first principle of the construc-— 
tion of openings in walls, the profile of the architrave is al- 
ways behind the wall face, but it may project in front of that 
in accordance with the second principle; bat principles nust 
always be separated and never combined, so as to have the arch- 
itrave froject from the face of the wall, unless it is struct- ' 
urally separate from the wall, for otherwise surplus stone must 
be cut from each block of the architrave. 

In very thick walls, the openings have very wide jambs, which 
may be constructed of ashlars in two ways, either as shown in 
plan at a and b (Fig. 308), where the splay is produced by st- 
ones set obliquely, or according to the plan c and a (Figs. 309), 
where the splays are replaced by rectangular offsets. the exam- 
ples b and d represent the architrave as projecting considera- 
bly from the wall face. In case d the rectangular offsets may 
te replaced by small columns in windows and entrances, or the 
angles between the offsets may be filled by small columns (Fig- 
310), whose capitals support arches prifiled in any manner. 

be Special on doors, windows, gateways, etc. 

As already stated, openings in walls are for admission of 
light as windows, or are passages of all kinds, doors, gateways, 
portals of tunnels, gateway bridges, for water, and others such 
as embrasures, for ventilation, etc. Windows are formed in ver- 
tical walls, either with a vertical axis like wheel windows, 
in which we include all windows arranged about a centre, or 
are skylights in ceilings. According to their uses they princi- 
pally belong to dwellings, public buildingr and palaces, lastly 
to churches. We shall now describe openings in walls in the f 
following order. 

1, windows of dwellings; 2, those of public buildings and p 
palaces; 3, those of churches; 4, wheel windows; 5, tracery of 
windows; 6, skylights. We distinguish the smaller entrances of 
private and public buildings as:- 7, doors; 8, larger gateways 
including city and fortress gates and triumphal arches; 10, 
portals of tunnels; 11, gateway bridges; 12, openings for dis- 
charge of water, for ventilation, embrasures, etc. 

1. Windows of houses. 

We first consider the windows of dwellings for the eeason t 

that the most important separate motives may be derived from 


OO ene ee ee 


ers 


e 


is RS at Or 
ee - atasmsyoarte Lenten gated es eaedt 
etat yferen seodt to bas agatbitnd atelg yrev to wwobail 
fs ,emeot selqmte ent smpees {ftw esedqtg, {oteen s0% 
s aeidorg odd esso eldt ni .esheq Batbooesg ont at betas 
hanson teolqmte edt dtin sJostte geod edt ciatdo od et 
wi a eswobotw ael{is) .0 
leo, at awobaty 10 sted bree sd yom {arene nt elttil 
ony # conte .egntffewb at heowhortnt somttenon ,asewod 
t to tnnonos nO .easo dose nt egnado emo? rkedt to eno 
ot afdtesoq es sbiw ae sbam ste yodt tonted [lene 
shows YI daqvo13 msds e186 bas ,fdarl to insomea elidasebis 
f ylovitales 9 yd besasge bas ebient beyslge ,.ofs, ,29 
{9 ntl oat emtot tieett dtntig edt nedw botsioo ed yen sade 
“ead s sd yam evatsinots odd to ofttow eaT .(LLE .art) 
Be PGE soos ee timbe of begade ,betaert ylanie ad r0.bed 
mo yieeascen 816 dase meboow tk sieden [antetxe as dtiw .sidie 
Be sade fenvetnt ne ddin ,boext? sie eavobain sat tr 
sont mf pret oe & ofat aftit eme1t meboow sdt Te , dots imo 
ce ‘et o(Sré oak) 
tak emoor sat pie of eyieR yino swohakw talf{[oo edd YI 
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sg tedue sd¢ to yrnoeem teldes edt dtin anotienidmos, bet 
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Debi’, -aflew mt eaninego [{sme ynitevoo to ebodten..191q 
oa s; Inenaeed Yo'‘nottentdmoo sat, mont dinget etoomeynatse 
ee etodel bayol sd [fiw ee awebdain 
ae Sa : | Y10TS Foemeasd oi enohbas¥ .4.5.. 
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ite 


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att ) t187 6 yquooo [fad sotatine dae yew19ob oft sonia, .ytode 
vai | gods [fame « 10% asdat od yee th to», 99872 

ie 09 yliaven tnsmeeed ont ,aeiliv bas eeanod besoateh al 
a Qotsooed ydetedt ,.ot@ ,woor antnih .moor norsqgsoet edt 
Hien ) 9 sntbiodus ssmooed ytote asqge edd efinw ,ytots Laqioning 
>. .tkobuod eLISSIWM ,s007 testdsend ,pmootbed scv eniataos 
ee esenod ytto nt braot at yrota baidt 10 brooee a Tt 
eat .eanif{fenb stenthtoiue atatnoo seinedil asizote seeds 


aoe S1stostidors sdt nt hetaotbhar sd team wetiote edt to retor 


TnSmMayneIs tL98dF. oF bed. - 


165 
these as being normal arrangements. 

Windows of very plain buildings and of those merely intended 
for useful purposes will assume the simpler forms, already tr- 
eated in the preceding pages. In this case the problem always” 
is to obtain the best effect with the simplest means. 

ao. Cellar windows. 

Little mn general may be said here of windows in cellars of 
houses, sometimes introduced in dwellings, since the proporti- 
ons of their forms change in each case. On account of their | 
small height they are made as wide as possible to admit a con- 
siderable amount of light, and are then srouped by twos, thre- 
es, etc., splayed inside and spanned by a relatively low lintel, 
that may be omitted when the plinth itself forms the lintel ( 
(Fig. 311). The profile of the architrave may be entirely omit- 
ted or be simply treated, shaped to admit as much light as pos- 
sible, with an external rebate if wooden sash are necessary or 
if the windows are fixed, with an internal rebate that may be 
omitted, if the wooden frame fits into a rebate in the stone. 
(Fig. 312). 

Tf the cellar windows only serve to light the rooms in the 
cellar, they are generally made subordinate, but the most var- 
ied combinations with the ashlar masonry of the substructure 
are possible, like those mentioned in the Chapter on the sim- 
pler methods of covering small openings in walls. Peculiar . 
arrangements result from the combination of basement and cellar 
windows as will be lound later. 

8. Windows in basement story. 

Forms of windows in basement of lower story are always adap- 
ted to their arrangement | 

The basement of a house for rental will contain smaller and 
therefore less respectable dwellings, than that of the first 
story, since the doorway and entraice hall occupy a part of its 
space, or it may be taken for a small shop. 

In detached houses and villas, the basement usually contains 
the reception room, dining room, etc., thereby becoming the p 
principal story, while the upper story becomes subordinate and 
contains the bedrooms, breakfast room, nursery, boudoir, etc.; 
if a second or third story is found in city houses for rental, 
these stories likewise contain subordinate dwellings. The char- 


acter of the stories must be indicated in the architecture, 


ae te he Abd ff thee { 0) 4. SAGE 
i 7 c il T ‘ zi ae 


dat 
| edt seruon asdzed: ‘edt mk’ eomtd omer sit te and 
tones ont bas Amb lid evtins edt Yo eeed edt entot 
8 Jatoten edt eeeeotaxs tt eonke bas ,motteném19s ett 
itooe eseebt oft atitw ebtocce .aeotdaesgqe y{foettioS e100 10 
os ad blwotea t1eq t9qqu Sit Feds ,woled bre ovodA adie 
Jnbae nit eben od tenn sgasdo a ,1stveed yiots tawol edt 
at bas enoteneuth ar dtod ,asiiote tastettrb edt to 
baned, oct unintetmo>s yiots adt sasn sy fetenes ak tl - 
attr ‘nt tuemeesd adt od cafe yem dotde .s3s8t6 effed sdt 
este 10% asecod at ytote tart? edt ed events Ilte 
baa * Dy tasrettib ak nomaoo , agottaogory Lawton 3abwo 
‘th bn <Besed ee eytse ysm ,o1sesem to ating [socal edd to 
i ANeag qetest3 eft tect ,noktoennco eidt nt heton ed of 
69 viev 6 no beesd si eoauod nebesil to stetostinors 
1 edt ee [fen ee etnsmetiapes [soktoetg to cnofttarebre 
oh. ‘eenoldqogorg Bie 
snebeatC te Ieatnes rot wsaelo rewol ytentbto na 107 
ad g eyrots bn S .ytote suste sifled 10 ta I .tasmeeed 
JO. Ciee PLE oHQid.sH CC. « bC.E -agoda 
_ -mpers mekiote evods ent ot eaoitiogetq adT 
vy. TRE t tet st 
| -:faetaet tot seeadt tettiad « oF 
a0. * Bef O88 x ASB: Geel * ORE 
.. =rev%e sstiote tastettr1d sdf of anoitragerg Ssseat 
. Boys hn RUBE yet ES Qin ft TERR a vet 
; lite -» etfgtget tot essed 1stted bas teats 8 10f 
dee te.T » Toa d¢.8 x OF.b a@.t #1 de.8 
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te ‘ie 


toe te a 


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my eyIote seTLTy shete slfed to bavotD 
BOL © Wek | ORR «ASD 
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' (eytose by . eyzota ba $ eytote fert®. .tnensead » 
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err ay or; Pe SE AN Seamer a7 


by cere beat DET ERC BROT = BRAC 28.3% Moe 


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166 

but at the same timee in the hegher houses the basement story 
forms the base of the entire building, and the upper story is 
its termination, and since it expresses the natural feeling, 
or more correctly speaking, accords with the ideas associtated 
with Above and Below, that the upper part should be light and 
the lower story heavier, a change must be made in the windows 
of the different stories, both in dimensions and in treatment. 

If in general we name the story containing the best dwelling 
the belle etage, which may also be the basement in villas but 
will always be the first story in houses for rental, the fol 
owing normal proportions , common in different places and based 
on the local units of measure, may serve as bases, and it is 
to be noted in this connection, that the sreater part of the 
architecture of Dresden houses is based on a very careful con- 
sideration of practical requirements as well as the most plea- 
sing proportions. 

For an ordinary lower class for rental at Dresden. 
Basement. 1 st or belle etage story. 2 nd story. 3 rd. story. 


Shops. 3.94 x iP ss, ft.high. 3.77 * 7.06 3.77 x 7.06 
The proportions in the above stories are:- 
1 & 1.917 ie 1.67 1: 187 


For a better house for rental:- 
3.94 x 7.55 4.26 x 8.20 3.94 x 7.06 3.77 ne 688 


These proportions in the different stories are:- 


Tied, 917 1 9,23 13%':2.875 1‘: 1.826 
Tor a larger and better house for rental:- 
3.94 «7.55 4.10 x 8.36 4,27 '*% F228 3.77. * 6.792 
These proportions are:- 
1262547 i:47'4.888 1+: 1.846 1 + 4 7ae 
The following apply to two story villas:- 
Ground or belle atage. First story. 
4.27 x 8.20 3.77 * 7205 
4.75 * 8.52 
4.43 x 8.37 Ciddnints Wb 
Stuttgart. 
Basement. First story. 2 nd story. 32 rd story. 
3.28 x 5.58 3.44 x 6,89 3.282 6.06. 2.95. 5946 
Vienna. 


3.94 x 6.89 3.94 x 7.98 3.94 x 7.54 3.94 x 6.56 


wt, va en Aahageannper ap ry . ; 
eS eet KLE) BET TE! "88.2 ig 
ae: )titeanrtoe oF antbrepoe) nttted ue 
eh hein 260° 4) Srfetnen tot senod @ 107 
as) seat a oy oR. hi x O3-b OS.8 = 03.2 
tvs | : poe agellives 109 
‘f “Ti BLsOr *-OL@) © BELO x Odd 
viz oA sooefey sonseetane astfetT t9lf{eme wot A 
| .ferebtsl eoafst ,sonavolt © 
oo * x OOMR ) “OGLE > OBVR: ')  OA.Obe O8Lb 
) iy eQnklfewd .anete 
me Peo Fe.e * Te $8.3 * 23.p > 98.0 * nee 
a » «(issote?) imteea scaled ,emot 
ee") seaknassell OS.8 * Sener SELL = TBE 
ae «Eeresey .A eoslat ,smoF 
ane ES.0 * COLD CT.8 * ERB CO.8 * Ob.D 
guna eanett? soefeT .smod 
DOLD « Ba.E 8.0 * 08.2 00.8 =<fpO.d 
‘evad [ootioe nefeerl edt to ‘etostidois oft oLiak 
ae enobnin ead to enérProjo1 eft of hersdtbs ylt 
pharery’ ,PeBaFIoIe rSt mevig enotemenrh sat ,mevih 
dual ton sta ted .etaatxorqgas yletem era nifiss. boa 
oe -asttto ssonit at Seyofqns enoiens 
senobain to aevetsidows “Y 
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poe. 908 fg yen at sioold gete stete [evsm sat mort 
#8 to antytisop edt to tasmgofeveb teeth &@ yd aldiaeng 
to anotancnig [aaton sved mioold dgu0% ot smehbeetd ni 
ast: evartifons edt to e{ttorg edt fue .ebiw sent 88.1 
aitidone to dtbin emae add toy patbin ot ans 30.3 of $0.3 
Ps dthtw eld? tod ,eeritote tneavettrd ent at bentatey 
TooOK ,SiveRed Festacty ods of tesel ed? mort bseee 
posts ,yntbited edt to bra e{ttow edt Yo eeeniolt 
-teftoe\_iedo. esr to esenntiala vo aesasnit edd 
Beitote tnarsttib to awobarn sdt to dtbtw weld eft eonte 
We Sis tod \footor nebeerd edt to eely1 edt ot |nthro008 ytEV 
dtbin Innzon @ dtin taetnnom niemet zevidote siedt to eid? 
SAF To Athin reefo ent of eidd to ‘hottrogorg edt ..ant ¢.d 
To sovertitiors edt somed ;2 > Lf obma Y i Dimsented estasv vob 


es 


167 
Carlsruhe. 
3.44 x 6,89 3.77 =x 7.38 2.61 x 6.72 
Beblin (according to Schinkel). 
For a house for rental:- 
4.60 x 8.20 4.60 x 9.20 4.60 x 8.20 4 
For a villa:- : 
4,60 x 10.18 5.10 x 10.18 
A fex smaller Italian Renaissance palaces are given for comparison 
Florence, Palace Larderel. 


4.60 x 9.50 4.60 x 9.50 4.60 x 9.50 
Siena, Daekling. 

3.94 x 7.82 3.61 x 6.82 3.61 x 5.57 
Rome, Palace Massimi (Peruzzi). 

3B * 7 22 4.92 x 9.20 Mezzanine. 
Rome, Palace A. Massimi. 

4.40 x 8.03 4.43 x 8.75 4.00 x 6.23 
Rome, Palace Firenze (Vignola). 

4.0¢/= 8.00 5.80 x 7.85 3.64 x 6.94 


While the architects of the Dresfen school have grettyistric- 
tly adhered to the prorortions of the windows of houses here 
given, the dimensions given for Stuttgart, Vienna, Carlsruhe 
and Berlin are merely approximate, but are not the normal din- 
ensions employed in those cities. 

y. Architraves of windons. 

Architraves, like the usual moulded portions, are wrought f 
from the usual stair step blocks in many places, where rendered 
possible by a great development of the quarrying of stone as 
in Dresden; the rough blocks have normal dimensions of 7.48 to 
7.88 ins. wide, and the profile of the architrave varies fron 
6.02 to 6.96 ins in width; yet the same width of architrave is 
retained in the different stories, but this width may be incr- 
eased from the least to the greatest measure, according to the 
richness of the profile and of the building, also according to 
the fineness or plainness of its character. 

Since the clear width of the windows of different stories v 
vary according to the rules of the Dresden school, but the wid- 
this of their archives remain constant with 4 normal width of 
6.5 ins., the Hap: of this to the clear width of the win- 
doa varies between 1-: 7 and 1°: 9; hence the architraves of 


¥ \ ae wi) oY ee a 
ee ok AO RRR al) A Ur 
{ fj ro | i eal Lys it HEA | cn , i On 
i nd ‘ Ruy a : j : 


aebt Scat olinn le AAR ewobnix woreda add to 
ot 90 fof farene3 nt ors enotanemth ashee1d sa? .wowten soor 
| ere heen enotebaee Sentety ent? edt of Satwo {ines be 
paren ave ewohatw sonseeteanss bra otenelo to eevettisor 
eis _., enobatn to dthin aselo ant a\t ot s\z gmted ,ashi* 
| heel ett bas wobntw edt bevebianoo 1st of svad 57% 
featq yfdtoome gnived seasod mo Lemion 5 ae sresage Sf 
fiitt: Beostoxs ton af evettidors edt enedu ,eflan soove 
rtf atets79r eft yd tad antmaqo edt to eelyne odd 
tao mt esnote inet ed? to mofvosto1qg edt .wobniw sid Yo 
: sot oat 2.0 od saael ta teom [Len edt to sont eds 
pdostettes tootts att sian ot edmet, debLoow sot wai O€.t 
ea eai® ai movi 1s anotementbh [rotiosig aedto edt 
| famzon gniwolfot oni betkt esd Ioodos nasbes1] eral 
) aseeo beivev teom sdé wot awobntw to asvartinors 10% 
tetoerads sonaeatans? yitotsta s gnéved [f[sf ,soitoarg at 
d gate tod Dean snotebnase saiid sdt ot betiae anted 
ae ‘Sense oftedtes edt of afreteb to anottrogoyg edd 
ratoststo mre to (ALE .RET) suobatn tellang aot .f 
Vay © sMottoe.ong omit $00.0 bne sbix 
o =, 3 yanthariade sedogt to evobnin tellame to7 .S 
| Bievad yam alensa imor edt ;(@LE .Bt%) mottostong «ar 202.0 
¥ tat mezjnaite dott yzev of das ,eettesot déiw belt? esl 
hee ; ae Pi el: «@tnomento staditi{eb yi belfrt od yam 
an bes fi ea. (OLE R48) emte ogetevs to ewobain 10% .8 of € 
ria BE nt a.d belttorg eaten atom to ylentt ,sedoin 
aS -MOltosi,om «ent 
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| nebau ead ¢ 20% 29920 estevet dtin eteaimist ,Of .S .aon 
os eimor ddtn e930 seteven sved of .€ .3 oom phan01 t9t7e00 
qeoxes m2.,9028% [lew mort paitontony sittomg sxftae esd 2 .on 


168 
of the narrow windows appear broad, while those of wider ones 
seem narrow. The Dresden dimensions are in general to be term- 
ed samll, owing to the fine grained sandstone used there; the 
architraves of classic and Renaissance windows are generally 
wider, being 1/4 to 1/6 the clear width of window. 

We have so far considered the window and its architrave as 
it appears as a normal on houses having smoothly plastered or 
stone walls, where the architrave is not produced by splaying 
the angles of the opening, but by the separate lintel and jambs 
of the window. The projection of the jamb stones in fromt of 
the face of the wall must at least be 0.9 in. for plane ir 
1.38 in. for moulded jambs to make its effect satisfactory’ t 
the other practical dimensions are given in Fig. 313. 

This Dresden school has fiked the following normal profiles 
for architraves of windows for the most varied cases occurring 
in practice, fiall havéng a strictly Renaissance character and 
being suited to the Pirna sandstone used, but which still leave 
the proportions of details to the esthetic sense. 

1. For smaller windows (Fig. 314) of simple character, 6 ins. 
wide and 0.904 in. projection. 

2. For smaller windows of richer character, 6 in. wide and 
0.904 in. projection (Fig. 315); the sunk panels may have ang- 
les filled with rosettes, and in very rich arrangements, they 
may be filled by delitate ornaments. 

3 to & For windows of average size (Fig. 316), simpler and 
richer, finely or more plainly profiled, 6.5 ins. wide, 1.38 
ins. projection. | 

9 to 20. For broad windows (Fig. 317), more or less simple 
or rich, richly or plainly profiled, with or without sunk pan- ' 
els, 6.97 ins. wide, projection 1.38 to 1.97 ims.(Fig 317). 

In all these profiles the ease of execution, general effect, 
the projections of each fillet, cove, round, reverse oBee, are 
considered in the most careful way. The peculiarities found in 
these profiles are the following. 

No. 1 has least projection; nos. 2, 12, 20 have sunk panels; 
nos. 4, 7, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, have flats separated by rounds; 
nos. 2, 19, terminate with reverse ogees; No. 5 has undercut 
quarter round; nos. 6, 9, 19, have reverse ogee with round; 
no. 9 has entire profile projecting from wall face, an except- 


— a 


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| edt to ano ratinseq edt nt yeb toosety BH 
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‘na done to wrt ent mistdo [fade en .(82F wort) 
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. motdowe edt bne .betotins et svitom sat anes’ eds 
eat fatntl! sit .beqolsveb yfavotnomied ef whdats 
| “Snpted a sven Peon font €.0 teas! te toatoq? Jeor 
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saith Ot alemag anne oct tant oefs .sesdd of nottibde 
Piss Su? of moFeRotTyqe tot batinany ete eolgnd ais te 
Ir beonbon3 od bluow selzas yfkn eonte {efhneaq brometh 
este) atesl saa ak encktosatesat' igo bas eeed’ Fert? 
to ‘efttorg Sittina ea? Anand of bertesh sd’ tr VI 
7 ot feor sod Peon tdgren tredd yess edt Boros sve 
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i aa | ‘texts a 
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It 


oon 


a, 


169 
exceptionally permissible arrapigement of heavy character. Nos. 
15 and 17 with splayed bands. 

In all these profiles the recalling of classic forms and the 
treatment of the architrave with imitated forms are suppressed — 
AS improper, and the nature of the architecture is brought in- 
to the foreground. | 

§. The so-called Bars. 

Very ancient reminiscences of wooden construction remain to 
the present day in the peculiar forms of the so-called ears of 
‘the architraves of windows, if we conceive tao window jambs, 
above which is placed a lintel connected telow by a crosspiece 
(Fig. 318), we shall obtain the form of such an architrave in 
the simplest way; if we carry the moulding around the edges of 
the ears, the motive is enriched, and the architrave of the w 
aindow is harmoniously developed. The lintel (Fig. 319), hich 
must project at least 0.9 inch, must have a height equal to t 
the width of the architrave; the window sill, which may also 
form an ear 0.9 inch high, should have about the same width, 
and since 1-38 inch is required for the wash, it must be 2.36 
ins wider than the profile of the architrave. It is easly seen 
that only the outer members of the architrave mouldings can be 
broken around the ears, or at most only the prin¢ipal band in 
addition to these, also that the sunk panels forming squares 
at the angles are unsuited for application to the ears like 
diamond panels, since ugly angles would be produced in the 
first case and ugly intersections in the last. (Fig. 320). 

Tf it te desired to break the entire profile of the architr- 
ave around the ears, their height must be equal to twice the 
width of the profile (Fig. 321), but the jamb must then be ab- 
out 0.9 in. thicker, since a part of the ear must be cut on it, 
or the lintel must te stilted about half the height of the ears. 
(Fig. 322. The last arrangements are ankward. It is permissible 
to increase the height of the ear by the width of its outer m 
moulding, so that the joint of the lintel cuts off a portion 


of the ear (Fig. 323), in which case the jamb must be about 0.9 q 


in thicker. 

Tt is to be noted here, that a variation of the arrangement 
of the ears, found in stucco work as well as in mitred wooden 
architraves, is only proper and justifiable in stone construc- 


ti 


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vi ii aa iat eee 
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5 Ne toe ett of oftteeoq ai dotiw ,sisdaleor 
p dastnogsbat yleritas si smo .x1ow twstaaly 10 OOS uA 
fq ts stae edt sgrado yem soaed dna nonsountiags) 
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nyenee edt tot eoeqe nisido of ea os ,got ta nadt ool 
pode + T sees Lamnon of oldsttttent yleousoe pra otedore 
, (yam ares edt to sigted eft tadt ,detsdmemes 9¢oals 
ote Yn saat eoneixt otti-oned ,aredsem [Lew yd bontaedsh: 
ri paot gat 64 esznthigom to tnemegnst1e edt YS to .ilaew edt: 
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st offasheq # gnied ee s{danoitoeido at s{yta otto’ 
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teum dotce ifte steveqse 8 to ebnets dmat wobniw.a YI 
| ohio yldnedoitics [Law edt mort tostong. ylles 
si ameeoite ~teldteeog smoned asaso jntwolfot ant ,dmst 
: @® .(AS6 .RES) {lie act entene worth gnrblvonm sya 
ree aes: -Bit) eaeia) bentfonr as so (a YSE .ot%) sentls 
“ti eit yltesl to ,tnewanto na yd belaesnos. at. toot 
tht Bet bae7 femyetze est tedt on (b SSE .3h%) bogauger 
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we } ent to notteanimrss edt .etelqmoont Bas bagofavebau 
tnt etirove? [étoeqs & asw onefy bentf[ont ne tantege 
vitin irq teom sad tay bne tasiqute ont at boe as2s, af 
(egatyslqe ui hsowebosg admst to ante? of. tot, eldatina 
bos efoeio1g Sniblvon edt sass ni. esasotont 89083 109 
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ts . ,efduob 10 slgnke od ysm tf bee ,sonsesienaa eit to 
pb) gobte oft ao oete 10 tmort edt no bshnat1 ylen. 
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@ eonaz60q78 wnt putdotnes x0? oy al aoctydp teaom sag. 


170 
construction, where no attention need be paid to the jointing 
and construction, as if the architecture were changed into 
sculpture, which is possible in the soft stone of Paris. In 
stucco or plaster work, one is entirely independent of the 
construction and hence may change the ears at pleasure. 

To employ inclined jambs or to make their profile wider be- 
louw than at top, so as to obtain space for the eags, would be 
archaic and scarcely justifiable in normal cases. It should 
also be remembered, that the height of the ears may be often 
determined by wall members, band-like friezes that run along 
the wall, or by the arrangement of mouldings having less pro- 
jection than the ears (Fig. 324). The Rococo idea of placing 
drops under the ears to indicate that the window is in the 
Doric style is objectionable as being a pedantic fancy, like 
so many things devised by a mistaken classicism. 

Tf a window jamb stands on a separate sill, which must patu- 
rally project from the wall suffictently to give space for the 
jamb, the following cases become possible:- either the archit- 
rave moulding dies agains the sill (Pig. 326), against a low 
plinth (Fig. 327 a) or an inclined plane (Fis. 327 b), or its 
foot is concealed by an ornament, or lastly the moulding is 
returned (Fig. 327 a) so that its external band is a plinth. 

The first and second arrangements mentioned have something 
undeveloped and incomplete; the termination of the moulding 
against an inclined plane was a special favorite in the midd- 
le ages and is the simplest and yet the most primitive form, 
suitable for the forms of jambs produced by splaying, its im- 
portance increases in case the moulding projects so much as to 
require splaying to carry off water, as on entrances of large 
size and similar architectural motives. Returning the moulding 
across the foot of the jamb is to be regarded as an invention 
of the Renaissance, and it may be single or double, either me- 
rely arranged on the front or also on the sides (Fig. 327,d,e). 
The most pleasing arrangement, though requiring most work in 
stonecutting, is that with the foot of the jamb concealed by 
an ornament, a mode of treatment much in favor in the German 
and French Renaissance. 

¢. Window caps. 
The most obvious expedient for enriching the appearance of a 


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171 

nindoa, at the same time protecting partly from the rain and 
balancing the sill, is the use of caps over the windows. A rete 
lieving arch is usually arranged above the architrave of the i 
window, over which a cap may find room; this is then separated 
from the architrave by a space like a frieze (Fig. 328), if t 
the masonry is plastered, the relieving arch is concealed by 
the plastering, if constructed of ordinary materials; if the 
arch is carefully built of stone or brick it may remain visible 
and project beyond the surface of the plaster or face of wall; 
(Fig. 328); if the projection of the architrave be 1.38 ins., 


that of the frieze may be half as much. ff the building is con- 


structed of ashlar masonry, the relieving arch should consist 
of two or three ashlars, the last being cut in voussoir shape, 
(Fig. 329), or it should be concealed by a slab of stone that 
may be enclosed by a border, be decorated by relief ornaments, 
or be made of a nobler material. 

The frieze must always project from the wall face it it is 
to act as such and if it be also of plaster; but it must have 
only the breadth of the window when ears are present, not to 
encroach on them. It is only justifiable to omit this frieze 
“hen the cap and lintel of the window are wrought from a single 
piece, and are therefore strong enough to support the weight 
of the wall, or wken a special relieving arch is placed abowe 
them. The cap will then rest directly on the lintel of the win- 
dox, from which it should always be separated by a visible jo- 
int (Fig. 330). 

The cap is a horizontal stone slat built into the mall, which 
in the simplest way has a sloping wash at top and a drip at b 
bottom (Fig. 331 4). Its projection requires support by a low- 
er moulding to make it satisfy the eye (Fig. 331 b), and a , 
higher form of development needs a crown moulding (Fig. 331 ¢c). 

According to the projection of the cap with the same height, 
the vertical surface may predominate over the upper and lower 
members as in Fig. 331 b, c, or conversely it may be reduced 
to a minimum by them (Fig. 332). The entire, character of the 
cap accommodates itself to this and will be heavy for a thick 
slab or light for a thin one. The appearance of caps of equal 
height may be modified by a steep or @ more nearly horizontal 


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The upper member (Fig. 333) fulfils the purpose of a termin- 
ating or crowming member, the lower one is a horizontal suppor- 
ting one (Fig. 334); Evidently in richer arrangements these m , 
members may be decorated by leaf mouldings, pearl beads, dent- 
ils and similar ornamental elements, according to circumstances. 

Qne may take 7.48 ins. as a measure for the height of the cap 
in norhal cases; if it is required to be lower the wash may be 
more inclined. 

The projection of the cap may be increased as a whole by sli- 
ding the cap and its drip out farther’ this mode of increasing _ 
the projection is dangerous, as the cap appears heavy in prop- 
ortion to the entire architrave of the window, though not suf- 
ficiently protecting that from rain, at the same time it may 
appear to project too much at the ends. Caution is therefore 
advisable, and a moderate projection of the cap is preferable; 
{ts projectionimay be made less at its ends than its front, so 
that its underside appears unequal in breadth (Fig. 335), the 
upper and lower members projecting equally all round. 

It is incorrect to regard a cap as a principal cornice at a 
reduced scale, as usually done; in many cases the cornice and 
Cap may serve similar purposes, but on the other hand are es- 
sentially different frequently; The projecting cornice that c 
crowns the whole may serve as the terminal member for many ob- 
jects, buildings and furniture, so that supporting or crowning, 
lightwof heavy, lower and upper members seem desirable without 
the need of a water spout, a leading feature of the cornice of 
the classtc temple. By traditional custom the Creeks imitated 
the form of the water gutter where it could not be required, 
just as the mediaeval architects by force of habit also employ- 
ed the so-called gargoyle when it was useless. The famous door 
of the Frechtheum at Athens, over which a regular cap first o 
occurs since the older Egyptian architecture, and which by the 
orthodox Nechellenists is esteemed to be of unique beauty] ex- 
hibits a mixture of refined sculpture and a lack of architect- 
ural thought. A cap of similar character, whose crowning mem- 
ber is changed into a formal water gutter, may be appropriate 
in certain cases if the crowning member is made a gutter of 
thin metal above 2 widely projecting geison of boards. But the 
imitated gutter is meaningless when a mare form and fulfils no 
purpose, and if the Creeks did become accustomed to regard the 


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173 
cornice and water gutter as inseparable ideas, or in other wo- 
rds reached the false conclusion, that since a water gutter | 
must be treated as a cpownins member, conversely a crowning 
member must be shaped like a gutter, we need not imitate any 
nonsense of that kind. 

In like manner the Cothic style committed the fault of using 
the verry appropriate wash (or inclined plane surface) with its 
drip as a natural form of cornice, where no water was to be t 
thrown off. The Creeks employed a geison as the principal part 
of the cornice, making this project as far as possible, so that 
the shelter from the rain might be found beneath it. The midd- 
le ages feared torrents of rain but little and desired to rid 
themselves of the rain as rapidly as possible; in rather a sh- 
ort-sighted way, without sufficiently thinking of its disposal, on 
ahether any provision should be made for this or not. The need 
of a principal cornice exists for a wardrobe, stove or altar, 
just as much as for a house or tower; still in the first three 
cases it will act merely as a crowning member and not to carry 
off water. In the same way a cap may be required in the inter- 
ior of a building, for furniture, niches in walls, for altars, 
monuments, doors and windows, stoves, etc., to satisfy esthet- 
ic requirements without fulfilling any material purpose. There 
always remains an affinity between a cap and a cornice if their 
purposes are allied, yet they are not the same, one remaining 
a cornice and the other a cap. 

When a cap is required to have a considerable projection, #ith 
consoles of the simplest form it is that of a slab projecting 
strongly forward and supported by a cortel at each end (Fig. 
336): to make these appear effectiv, the slab should project 
but little begond them as much as may be necessary, while the 
ends may project more’ the lower members of the cap are broken 
around the consoles,and underside of cap may be decorated by 
sunk panels to not seem too heavy. 

The consoles may be placed above the lintel of the window or 
door; only occupying the height of the frieze; they will then 
have the same width as the architrave over which they are pla- 
ced (Fig. 356), or are placed just outside the architrave that 
extends between them (Fig. 338); in this case a steep form is 
preferable, corresponding to the slender ness of the windowa 


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“No absolutely valid rule can Z given for their dimensions, b 
but a basis is to make their breadth 3.94 to 4.34 ins. and th- 
eir total height 16.95 to 20.9 ins, exclusive of the lower nem- 
ber of the cap. These dimensions harmonize well with those gi- 
ven for architraves and those of the cap. 

Tt should also be noted here, that the lower members of the 
cap, which are broken around the consoles, should be wrought 
on the caphitself, and therefore in profiling them attention 
must be paid to the form of the cap and also to that of the 
consoles. 

When consoles are employed, a decoration of the frieze above 
the lintel is more justifiable, because it may be treated as 
an ornamental panel with peculiar propriety. 

A further means of enriching window architecture consists in 
the arrangement of a window sill on which stand the jambs, and 
which partly serves a decorative purpose and is partly desira- 
ble on esthetic grounds, partly resulting from material needs. 

* Window sills. 

As already stated, the window sill is a kind of cornice that 
projetts sufficiently to receive the architrave, or at least 
9.08 to 13.8 ins. for fully developed architrave mouldings. T 
This projection is so great as to require some lower members, 
since the sill would appear too heavy without them, and these 
loser members must be supports. If moulded jambs are used, the 
front surface of the sill would seem too heavy if left smooth” 
therefore it may be finished with sunk panels but most project 
more to afford the jambs a firm support (Fig. 339). This arran- 
gement was already known to the classic period, examples being 
found on the Erechtbeum a: Athens and the temple of Vesta at 
Tivoli. 

In our rainy North the sill must usually have a drip to pre- 
vent the water from running down the wall, and this end is more 
perfectly attained wken the sill has an upper crowning member, 
which not only throws the water farther from the wall, than a 
simple slab would, but also lends the entire sill a richer and 
more noble appearance (Fig. 340). This upper member is general- 
ly returned at the ends of the sills. the result is that the 
water either runs down the wall at the angles of the sill, or ~— 
special precautions must be taken to prevent this evil; a further 


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| «(QE .2f7) eredmem Sninworo to [antmiet atin bred 19 


. 
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LTD 
result therefore is that the sill is longer than the total wid- 
th of the window. The simplest means of leading the water away 
from the aall consists in forming a small spherical wash at t 
the angles of the sill (Fig. 321), which is scarcely visible - 
from,b elow. The widening of the sill resulting from the addi- 
tion of an upper member makes of its upper surface a very con- 
venient support for persons looking out of the window, for 
flowering plants, etc. To better satisfy similar requirements, 
the middle ages and Renaissance styles sometimes corbelled out 
sills; we shall return to this later. The following modes of 
arranging sills are those now most common. 

1. The sill is isolated and not connected with other archit- 
ectural details, to form a part of the enclosure of a window, 
simply projecting from the wall. 

2. The sill projects from a continuous string course, either 
flat or along it are continued the upper, lower, or all members 
of the sill (Fig. 342). 

3. The sill is supported by consoles. 

4, The sill rests on a slight projection of wall under window. 
5. The sill is formed as a low base, which may be connected 
with the base of the building in the basement story (Fig. 343). 

1’,. In the first case, the sill should have but moderate pro- 
jection, only as much as absolutely necessary. Profiles like 
1, 6, 7, 8, 9, in Fig. 343 may be suitable as applicable. 

2’. If the continuous string cousse is flat and projects from 
the wall, the profile of the sill may spring directly from it, 
1 to 9, Fig. 342, or this may project by the breadth of the 
lower horizontal fillet. A profile like 10 permits the sill to 
be made lower than the string course, while the lowest vertical 
fillet may coincide with the string course. (Fig. 344). If the 
string course and sill are mouldéd alike, the sill either does 
not project and coincides with the string course; or it requi- 
res support by consoles, small pilasters or slight projection, 
or a projection of the waal surface in case it projects beyond 
the string course. 

If the upper or lower members of the sill are omitted in the 
string course, it should have a greater projection and a more 
solid character than in the second case5 in the first it appe- 
ars as a strongly projecting cornice, in the second as a light- 
er band with terminal or crowning members (Fig. 345). 


b ni bentstdo ad gy yen Ifte edt to iicevokeeaeeae 
viet eo gnitte to qith edt antdtino t9dtte ayer 
3 gottoetorqg s 10 atetesftq ,eefornoo no [Lie edt 
* aeuiiess: ,asfoenco yd bertoqque od [fie eat tI .%€ 
Inode yedt ,2q89 Yo esloznce of es mest ov ylqqs selyn 
S 1 t fotdy dtsened, gevarsidows edt es dtbacid sare edt 
synods ddbondiod sosqe #& seolon® yodt ;beoalg ylstaraoes. od 
}betoannos ate 10, 984d @ po Steet aedt aneiqad netto 
seiat gidt baa ,(PSE .BtT) ebas tewel vied? vebaw baad 
yw soktsi009b 10% ywinwti0qqo ebrgt ys sosgensent 
»,epeloenoo edt to sxedmee t9qq0 eaT .ebatx [fa Yo 
sabe moo sityped ,ilte edt Yo e1edmem tewol coals ota 
Att {Ite edt to sbierehss sat wetmtog dtod of brayet 
Moo) .afeney anne yi betsi100eb sd yino ton yan ,qeo eit’ Yo 
# .eldssebtescs etoetoiq [fim sdt th oe ed teun- tod ,.ode 
ek shao ot Yo metv edt mort refostedo yvesd edt evo 
i of esses nem ot oidsetvba bemesh ed [fin #1 oS 
snare tt eevth yino gon dotdiw ,wobniw edt dvasned nordost 
' id Yt ,YIKGRHOeR Stoteteds ei baa aesossedo ssb8ece 
: Taare st ‘dtbtw eff oF nottiogory nf {feme ek nobniw odd 
efite anttostoi ylebtw rot efdertiesd ai dt ynsoe stoted 
atoo yd Jxoqque ot s{dtaeog so sidaiteeb ton ak ti 
fit ave yd beter09eb ed: 10 dtoome tte{ ed yan anottoazorg 
§ aiteote .adeed ,ecotlisbem .(SM .o4%) ebmid Ife to 
Aw astesita siode yoebie dose ts betintl od yom yllankt 
.. . (tied ddzizt Af .3tT) [emer inves « seolone 
Wagse0e yen oesd wol eee [[te odt Yo tnemgolaveb adT .3¢ 
met ssavot ak bawot qilevan eeneo al .ebapotr tasrattib 
‘to tdated [entetxe fenton edt totitess of af{daraceb 
load ry e-anted yifaaq ,.ent CofE taeds OF magtosiorg 
ods tf eldteetareg ed [fiw aide jsofsttel matt ne ish 
BS Sutot (ite ttodt tadt ,beaneris of ed yrote teased ent to 
n ae onercss ® beoslg at dotdw evade ,torisint end ao 
ne © ,josd s as svtee ot .wobatn bextt 2 10 Axon sotstal 
a. obarianiad bnoses e 1c , Noad 2 8 SYteR oF wobate 
4 tee e8mIe eat trcgqoe 
le sass sande: Si eneo edd od sedtrot [lin ata? 
- penete 19990 10 eninessen 6 Yo swobaiw nol edd of neviR 
# conta oF ton afdartasb ef tt anoegset oo tot ti qlilen 


i hee 
My ; 


176 

The projection of the sill may then be obtained in different 
ways, either omitting the drip of string course, or supporting 
the sill on consoles, pilasters or a projection of the wall. 

3’. If the sill be supported by consoles, the same general 
rules apply to them as to consoles of caps, they should have 
the same breadth as the architraves,beneath which they should 
be accurately placed; they enclose a space between them, if as 
often happens then rest on a base , or are connected by a small 
band under their lower ends (Tig. 346), and this frieze-like 
interspace affords opportunity for decoration by sunk panels 
of all kinds. The upper members of the consoles, when these 
are also lower members of the sill, require consideration in 
regard to both points. The underside of the sill, like that 
of the cap, may not only be decorated by sunk panels, coffers, 
etc., but must be so if the sill projects considerably, to re- 
ove the heavy character from the view of the underside. . 

4’, It will be deemed advisable tn many cases to form 4 pro- 
jection beneath the window, which not only gives it a more sl 
slender character and is therefore necessary, if the height of 
the window is small in proportion to its width; but also as b 
before seen, it is desirable for widely projecting sills, that 
it is not desirable or possible to support by consoles. These 
projections may be left smooth or be decorated by sunk panels 
of all kinds (Fig. 348), medallions, heads, wreaths, etc. and 
finally may be limited at each side by short pilasters, #hich 
enclose a sunk panel (Fig. 346, right half). | 

4. The development of the sill as a low base may occur on 
different grounds. In cases usually found in houses it may be 
destrable to restrict the normal external height of the window 
projection to about 31.5 ins., partly being a wall, the remain- 
der an iron lattice; this will be permissible af the windows 
of the best story be so arranged, that their sill forms a seat 
on the interior, above which is placed a balustrade of iron 
lattice work or a fixed window, to serve as a back, or a second 
window to serve as a back , or a second balustrade intended to 
support the arms. 

This will further be the case if higher proportions are to be 
given to the low windows of a mezzanine or upper story; and fi- 
nally if for special reasons it is desirable hot to place the 


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| das brotts of elomaxs tot ,t9dytd tug emeed wast 
re cease 3aivetier tiedd bos , awobniw eft of nottoutte 
beoaig meat st eatso> ynitts edt, .9fo1 #8 8h .yt0de “anol 
9" pes tt teR0l 3d yen tod .[ike edd es tdyred amee oat 
at ane sit) saad wol # ext! beatot od mead [Lie odd 
fed sttéa sdt antdem .eseo dtonot # notinem of eldaeivin 
its i Nike bes wol 8 ttoant of ,yin0aen to wank ¢.lf 
dt wolsd aa20%s bemtwwie: et dotdw ,everttidors bar [lte 
B88 ‘od yom tnomegneris isfimiea @ yflentt <(TM *.3f8) 
8 ata sit to aged edt ted? noeasa est tot, 1aqo74 
{ edt Yo seed edd ditw bentdmoo sd yam yiote gnem 
fT) ovale wobatw wells soit addin gqoota & mot AGBATSY 
| ana ewobatn Yo entot to santwerb ed? .(OcF (One 
4 a iy * osefoodos mebactd ed? of sahveta OE of 
 ./. e bs eewobatx to amrot [amtondAsp 
ie ‘ P eaatoet ttots eenod to ewohntn ed? aetesnoerh wettA 
be notsasn of sved on .atmemetionss [amion dein sore 
re ‘edd of gntbnogeeit0o ylsisg etaemaznatA ast 
> [ancttqeoxe at beyolgme yliray ,setro¢e otedteo 
0 mvot # betnevnt someagetace® dnid sasilatl sat 
pods ttin eeefnouted fotdn ,seeo bstsloek aqadi94 
oft mort Sntrett rh tuodt tw yiroarn oftenrt to x9 
“an Mietuat tagnooY odt oflayne® ofsotnd .lers983 of 
iid dotde to tnemeasd botaottaus sit -no ,senod a tse 
4 so1t s{qmke es to atatenoo ti  d9yolqms st bloode 
8 Beysiqe bas ebaad)telt to ensen yd avettidors worse) 
~ eu? .exotiude nobatw sdt tot stadea ytesasoen edt din 
9 otts. yiote tnemeeed #2 to elfen ed? to | ‘wesasoitds sider 
ae | yltaeupernod dns .enobmin sat of etittor bas edmet 
t iene Yo: ,selktomg etever bas slymte esedtt bone asvsrti 
kien, yilot ore fedt ,ICE .RIT at novia sia esiteriav 
)tnemecsd s to awohntw betastteny sit ,attogse? smse edd 
fotdw .eeveniidors olqmie tdtiw batsstt ete agode edt to 10 
sont (SE satT) eostame baysiqe 8 Yo ssvitom edd no bseed 
| _{atoeqe 8 extopes yifsnsnez aqoda to axobare edt 
y akedt Yo dthin odd ,ersdsude notk to nofttqsce: est 0 
eented sosqe sit bas ,emart asdoow sd yd Beagetomt 2 sever 
niet of wie eat .notf teeda to es9ettode sd? svtece: of ,owt, edt 


177 
string course as in normal cases, at the same height as the i 
inner beams but higher, for example to afford a stronger con- 
struction to the windows , and their relieving arches in the 
lower story. As a rule, the string course is then placed at 
the same height as the sill, but may be lower if required, and 
the sill then be formed like a low base (Fig. 343). It may be 
advisable to mention a fourth case, making the entire height 
31.5 ins. of masonry, to insert a low projection between the 
sill and architrave, which is returned across below this panel 
(Pig. 347); finally a similar arrangement may be necessary or 
proper,for the reason that the base of the window in the base- 
ment story may be combined with the base of the building, and 
perhaps form a group with the cellar window also (Figs. 343, . 
349, 350). The drawings of forms of windows given in Figs. 348 
to 350 are due to the Dresden school. 

ny .Abnormal forms of windows. 

After discussing the windows of house architecture in accord- 
ance with normal requirements, we have to mention a few pecnl- 
jar arrangements partly corresponding to the requirements of 
certain stories, partly employed in exceptional cases. 

The Italian high Renaissance invented a form of window in a 
perhaps isolated case, which harmonizes with the rude charact- 
er of rustic masonry without differing from the normal form 
in general. Antonio Sangallo the Younger desired to build hinm- 
self a house, on the rusticated basement of which his invention 
should be employed; it consists of a simple treatment of the 
narrow architrave by means of flat bands and splayed surfaces, 
with the necessary rebate for the window shutters. The consid- 
erable thickness of the walls of a basement story afforded wide 
jambs and soffits to the windows, and consequently narrow arch- 
dtraves and these simple and severe profiles, of which a few 
varieties are given in Fig. 351, that are fully justified. For 
the same reasons, the rusticated windows of a basement story 
or of the shops are treated with simple architraves, which are 
based on the motives of a splayed surface (Fig. 352). Since 
the windows of shops generally require a special arrangement 
for the reception of iron shutters, the width of their archit- 
raves is increased by the wooden frame, and the space between 
the two, to receive the shutters of sheet ‘iron. The simplest 


EE sw gg 


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ae, 


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‘snaphetan mottsottant edt .evarsinose [aioeqe yne 
bo | bemwwitet et 16 wobniw edt to dmat ent to tnost 
5 att senimintsh oals dotdn ,fasver # teatare gary 
“wobate Yo mio? elgqmie redfawt A .(ECE .xtT) nortost 
| wine ylfstoeqas ,soneratsanaa metledl odd mt sti 
“nt etetanad tI-.exobatw stanthbtodns tot 4 ,2hn 
6 shhe tenat est .salt dey ott to soetrwe ed po 
ods y foefowq yam dotdw .katbicom slgmte e yd beret 
4 it tet se ‘sRk?) St batted sheoet ee [Isw es soatrne 
eran qrev Hae stedio ont heqofeveh ate eavitom 
‘Sell edt gatytiseo ei bose ,[fie edt too sotlied 
bn vngusst ed ya (Ihe belledieo siT ston to di baw 
©) CAGE RET) ovettidors edt to afttory add Yo 
losegunia bas seedt mort bevissb eee avitfom rdtons 
f'to emiot sntitdo edd yntteroosh at anttetancs ein 
re fe (Oo “eit eétolov to emtot dttw yléerosqes (baad 
me ST9% dotdw ,Bevael wfeq baa eheatlot Atiw nottos 
peta daqevib teon edd tot someentaned fata ods 
Teme oft Of Ytos redo eviteroosh « baal ot eden 
P SdeIL of Babmetnt saodt 10 ,eetrot2 enicesxen to 
fade tO eatot erSves eiom sat of testtaoo at ,emoot 
bf red canon (TRE gee oBRI7) estrote [eqroniag ont 
i. tae Fbeqre eidt Seyolgqus talword 
| Ra hos cvcw atdtdeenacent edt beqolevebh aaw st mort 
tod eee dotde ,esvartioors yd estetgfuoe bedieent to sic 
‘eds no enokteveore yS faoot th ae .eliew odd Oda 
Bom ede dtin oxtromtad of Fdgvon asx tt Aotdw bos ,antbfind 
a3 a... svitstoceb seeds [fe 3ntnidmoo yd efostts hbalisv 
nt tdT .esvitom wobaiw sedto bos .28foenoo ,elite ,eyeo 
d yfleqtoats <afietebh eaedt ifs ot¢nt o8 of soals dt 
+ sbem od feom eogetetes dae ,eretostinois soalag rab 
‘aeat 16 osate) Sas domevs (metlesl no snoktactidng o 
" - it bees sd yen dotdw .esebt to shotttium we brotts cot 
“edt dtbin tefsexR 2 eved yileuen awobntw antnesssil 
90° mot{fom f[eafmes s yd bebivitbh semttonce nedd O18 
p nl .dtbiw rtsdd ebssoxe vfetay S1yted ttsdt to‘ siscpe 
gods dotdy mt stntoetidots sdt of Rrtbrooos .eseso Lenot 
a ots ‘Wed? redto aot eldetios yns exet yen Yess ,bszolyme 


178 

mode of forming the sections of rusticated windows is to omit 
any special architrave, the rustication then either ends in f 
front of the jamb of the window or is returned around it, stop- 
ping against a reveal, which also determines its greatest pro- 
jection (Fig. 353). A further simple form of window is a fayo- 
rite in the Italian Renaissance, especially for modest buildi- 
ngs, or for subordinate windows. It consists in leaving the | 
outer aurface of the gab flat, its inner edge only being bor- 
dered by a simple moulding, which may project beyond the flat 
surface as well as recede behind it (Fig. 354). From these two 
motives are developed two others and very pleasing ones by cor- 
belling out the sill, and by carrying the flat architrave aro- 
und it or not. The corbelled sill may be formed independently 
of the profile of the architrave (Fig. 355). 

Another motive was derived from these and similar arrangeme— 
nts, consisting in decorating the outline forms of the outer 
band, especiaaly with forms of volutes like consoles in conn- 
ection with foliage and palm leaves, which were employed during a 
the high Renaissance for the most diverse purposes and arrange- 
ments; to lend a decorative character to the smaller windows | 
of mezzanine stories, or those intended to light the vaults of 
rooms, in contrast to the more severe forms of the windows of 
the principal stories (Figs. 356, 357). Roman buildings in par- 
ticular employed this expedient. 

Trom it was developed the inexhaustible motive of the enclo- 
sure of inserted sculptures by architraves, which were built 
into the walls, as if found by excavations on the site of the 
building, and which it was sought to harmonize with the most 
varied effects by combining all these decorative motives with 
caps, sills, consoles, and other window motives. This is not 
the place to go into all these details, principally borrowed 
from palace architecture, and reference must be made therefore 
to publications on Italian, French and cerman Renaissance, #h- 
ich afford a multitude of ideas, which may be used in rare cases. 

Mezzanine windows usually have a greater width than height, 
are then sometimes divided by a central mullion, or they are 
square, or their height rarely exceeds their width. In except- 
ional cases, according to the architecture in which they are 
employed, they may take any suitable form other than the rect- 


Vii ian eg 
boat 10 Vasey esde as Wane ed .relngnetoss 
eb: Ife to quid at omee 88) .(C2E RIT) yen ae 
eve ote: wtbpath ited to meesslo [fe nt até 
mt: Pie ewe he AL ye rif e838D to emrot [amrondaé . 
@ to esesod nt Aokdn eixe yen staemettapes Reidy 
ee sfqate Atin nottoatetteesth of beef astrote 
58D aitq od \.amrot redoiy tot dovaes 8 oF dae sye 
tb ef? esitetoeteds of ortee & eyenle al est 
ebtehStatooess dns etaswertupet [awe .yechlind @ Yo 
ie blod ,yveed sit ae tnemoned sit to taomdserd sat oF bel 
ot simowy som sdt ae yrote teed sit to .ytote slamte 
r es esiiote Batniems1 edt 30. .sidon bas artever 
tuper - pneaapeed teom Bae teotdgtl edt ee teomteagqs est to 
= a reddit ,nottetone) Jeon ent to eldaqgao bae 
t ,bstate nedtto es .etetenod tneatsend Laeratoos ido 
: » Snole sevitom to egaeto ni steniot: brs ytainev 
or svensicone wobniw silqare sat mozT .sevitom to tneaes 
oh ssovitom to settas tatnolfot edt bentatdo 
rt bigatae-tis Hh nod? \S canes) to0udin-eevartinotA, «1 
aor abate eqeo Wtinw eovettidowe .b -ageo day 
q0 (dite bn qsodéiv evattidots .3 ;{fte bea eo dtie 
s3Lotq Isrosqge se bor gas fitter saodt .\ :aledtoo xd 
tom adt to tnameone dns mA jrobain edt woled ened « es 
1Reo wt sbeonbottar al yeo dnentbhbeg twslegne oa anode 8 of 
emo? Letnomgos to unted saedt .geo foemtbey ralgotre 
gt = snto ne yd qeo edt anttqaiistat yd OL esmooed ist 
| m yiovea sists ae Bevisost qeo & ,aseeo L[anoitqeoxs al 
10 ft Antian teldes ao moltqrioent ae to aoktqsoes 
o(t (mu fOOE. sR 27) a.ekgertnao- fetnamento yl 
phsdostebd yrova soot s sf{qnaxe ne 2 siat ay ts 
storia ms ssebsost faetettrh wwo08t evant of ef doide . (108 
hin nobts ot txon tad? .testte sdf tren ebsost [syiont 
b neb163 ond bas. (poneitas fegtoning ont bre rortosiorg 
dike ) Belt [fame gs entsetnoo yrosta fone janoitoeiorg ati 
>,mOo? Qrinrk vtefiot sesonsned taqqs ati brs neadotti to 
L dose nt swobniw seid? .mootbed MOOT Baivil ,soor oot 
rhas [utsosiyae eeeneeroq eanod sft .tneiotttos gated 
qon od bloods dnemeaed edt srotetadt sennidsogory xb 
deanee: anak: eft bas ,tied syd estiota redto edt wort 


fing 


179 
rectangular, be treated’ as wheel windows or formed in any oth- 
er way (Fig. 359). The same'is true of all cmaller openings 
found in all classes of buildings. 
S$. Abnormal forms of caps. 

Different requirements may exist, which in houses of several 
stories lead to dissatisfaction with simple forms of window 
caps and to a search for richer forms. The principal cause of. 
this is always a desire to characterize the different stories 
of a building. Natural requirements and associatedsideas have 
led to the treatment of the basement as the heavy, bold and s 
simple story; of the best story as the most prominent one as 
severe and noble, of the remaining stories as subordinate,and 
of the uppermost as the lightest and most graceful, requiring 
and capable of the most decoration, further a ground law of ar- 
chitectural treatment consists, as often stated, not in seeking 
variety and richness in change of motives alone, but in enhan- 
cement of motives. From the simple window architrave we have 
obtained the following series of motives. 

1. Architraves without ears; 2, those with ears; 3, those 
with caps; 4, architraves with caps on consoles: 5, those 
with cap and sill; 6, architrave with cap and sill supported 
by corbels; 7, those with cap and a special projection of wall 
as a base below the window; An enhancement of the motive leads 
to 8, where an angular pediment cap is introduced; to 9 with 
circular pediment cap, these being of segmental form. The lat- 
ter tecomes 10 by interrupting the cap by an ornamental group. 
In exceptional cases, a cap receives an attic story for the 
reception of an inscription on tablet makink 11, or 12, a pure- 4 
ly ornamental centrepiece (Fig. 360, a, b). ' 

Let us take as an example a four story detached house (Fig. 
361), which is to have four different facades, an unbroken pr- 
incipal facade next the street, that next the garden with a 
projection and the principal entrance, and two garden facades 
with projections; each story contains a small flat, consisting 
of kitchen and its appurtenances, toilet, dining room, recept- 
ion room, living room, bedroom, three windows in each facade 
being sufficient. The house possesses ungraceful and very slen- 
der proportions; therefore the basement should be separated f 
from the other stories by a belt, and the opper story be treated | | 


Peete it ee ee 
pg eA ete, a 
‘om eat ‘ ‘ t 


a 


: aes ‘re iy 

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. ‘g8 08 ‘eznaTIs of svAd won SF .yIote tnemeaed 
36 eons nasd taenivorg stom ytote tasd edt to eno 
2; ve teed edt gnied as aldt eatietosieds ot ee oF iote 
‘qiote -odt Yo awobatw edt dginumt etotetedt bloods 
“adgit 6 yd godt Raitosanos .aefoanoo gniven ages 
+ to afotviogory wehaslsa edt steisbom s70om [lite ot 
satel dt antstao® sevod sft to nottostorw efgne end 
pn: ~nottostorg tedto edt ;betentbiodse aioteieds et 
eka? epteine ot ae heoefq of et bnew ,moot anieth 
8h moot gatvif edT .elonn edt to tostte beriav edd 
0" nae edt smpeen Sw tl .tnemthsg aslvans dtinw wobni 
es Sor mee onlfe ynoolad sind of s08080b edt .ymooled « evan 
Bet Divow bas anobttw refto edt sot TsiTth bluow nob 
to 8 Obatw edt sexs of .notdontteib [eiosqa esi ortoper 
neds ylntely exon moor Qninrh baa deltot , nedor ty 
S ma ni iwesqorg ed ylbied [fiw salt Clame ant wt nt 
Eek bipes et seood sft to sonetasqge onteesfs & ned 
ss mont wttwe bluow ytino oct veri? sot ,ebie ash 
ip bivow Saemtsest roOrtetni etait baoven boe , yet 
ss ae ae Batonzi sd bloote teadt anno seodt ateao 

Vgytote bioose edt mt smoke bevaxol ed bLuow afeoe aot 
1 blo0w notdostors ent mt moon Snivtl oad to Kobnin 
0 sn? -ssfosnco {Lene dtiw tod ,taamtheq tuortin aeo 
b nefoanos tuoddiw‘eqeo eved blydde vtota ett to eno 
ito axobrtw ea?’ .ylfeot? .eflie stsieqse tyodtiw ad 
* w ong hinow bow severtidors even ylersm blvon yrote 
we yin edt Pex yossttt sat atin notioennoo riedt yo sostts tna 
: for Eatno8 into ne yo bedatoantverb ed yen ‘moon gatvil end to 
prtedt Litlat [ltw tnemeesd sit to ewobnrw sa? . (038 jyet) 
EpepeatioS ni tos odd gonta .a10% afquie to ane ysdt Yi seog 
Pemaqate fox stoves stom a bas ,sevod sdt to seat odd atin 
ed [fiw xyiote teed ed? to: awobntw sd# Yo Sads nact Joon 

Yo ont yfino ,Bebsoet sunt dtin seuod sto egao al 
pl yteitey base wine canst :entt smee and te nega od 
a ensa Sit #s nose Babeost ond sat wi botshracos 
-awolnt Laotatemnye ylfoatisd eteeqqe ebsost Saqiont 
pdows ni bnno® ek wobatn to butt efgnte a tud eonte 

O17’ & ead dotdn ,ebsost ebie’ ant Attn nedterot 


joguaminga 


180 
like a frieze, iee., enclosed by a band, thus balancing the bene 
basement story. We now have to arrange so as to make the wind- 
ows of the best story more prominent than those of any other 
story, so as to characterize this as being the best story. We 
should therefore furnish the windows of the first story with 
caps having consoles, connecting them by a light string course, 
to still more moderate the slender proportions of the house. 
One angle projection of the house contains the living room and 
is therefore subordinated; the other projection contains the 
diming room, and is so placed as to enlarge this and increase 
the varied effect of the whole. The living room is marked by a 
window with angular pediment. If we assume the dining room to 
have a balcony, the door to this balcony also serving as a win- 
dow, would differ from the other windows and would therefore 
require its special distinction. To treat the windows of the 
kitchen, toilet and dining room more plainly thar those remain-— 
ing in the small flat will hardly be proper in an assumed case, 
aben a pleasing appearance of the house is required on the gar- 
den side, for first the unity would suffer from too great var- 
iety, and second this inferior treatment would serve to indi- 
cate those rooms that should be ignored as much as possible. 

The scale would be lowered some in the second story, the 
window of the living room in the projection sould receive a 
cap without pediment, but with small consoles. The other wind- 
oas of this story should have caps without consoles and should 
be without separate sills. Finally, the windows of the third 
story would merely have architraves and would produce suffici- 
ent effect by their connection with the frieze; yet the window 
of the living room may be distinguished by an ornamental cap. 
(Fig. 360). The windows of the basement will fulfil their pur- 
pose if they are of simple form, since the act in connection 
with the base of the house, and a more severe and simple treat- 
ment than that of the windows of the best story will be proper. 

In case of a house with four facades, only two of them will 
be seen at the same time; hence unity and variety are to be 
considered in the two facades seen at the same time. The pr- 
incipal facade appears perfectly symmetrical in our example, 
since but a single kind of window is found in each story. 

Together with the side facade, ahich has a projection for 


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a3 aay 


181 

the living room, variety of appearance is obtained by the enh- 
ancement, of the motives of the windows’ in the same may the , 
side and read facades seer together form a group of varied but 
united effect. There still remains the description of the tre- 
atment of the doorway. This must have a transom for lighting | 
the hall, according to circumstances. If the windows of the 
stair hall are arranged in the usual manner to not be at the 
same height as the windows of the stories, but with reference 
to the landings, this arrangement not only gives rise to many 
peculiar combinations with the string courses, but may perhaps 
exert an influence on the forms of the other facades. Especial- a 
ly since a harmony of the facades may only be obtained, when a 
all motives occurring on them find their fullest development 
and resolution, so to speak, the arrangement of the stair win- 
dows assumed in our example conflicts with those of the other. 
facades, and requires to be softened. The stair hall windows 
serve purposes other than those of the living rooms, and should 
therefore be esthetically treated in a different way. The low- 
est window here serves as a transmo for lighting the hall, and 
may receive a pediment cap, angular; or its place may be occu- 
pied by a tablet inscribed with name of the owner, date of er- 
ection, etc. The window above this has a decorated circular 
pediment, whose character is always less severe than that of 
an angular pediment cap. The uppermost window may have a pure- 
ly decorative cap. 

We have given a preliminary indication in ‘this example, that 
may recur in inexhaustible variety, according to arrangement 
of plan and number of stories, according to the simpler or ri- 
cher, mor modest or more pretentious character, how artistic 
expedients should be employed in a special case. The general 
grouud laws of contrast of effect and of internal and external 
truth determine our choice of the défferent motives of form, 
to start from certain normals and not to throw together motiv— 
es at our fancy. The law of enhancement of motivesin connection 
with the other ground law, that a series of similar elements 
require the middle and ends to be made prominent as being spe- 
cial points, or that their recurrence in a periodic series must 
be accented, requires the strongest motives to characterize + 
the points, that are to be made most prominent, the weaker to 


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182 

be subordinated, and further a strict adherence to simplifying 
the motive of the different stories, to a certain degree, and 
finally that as the painter mustfirst have a clear idea of the 
distribution of the brightest lights and deepest shades over 
his picture, one must not in the arrangement fose sight of the 
highest and lowest permissible limits, within which his motives 
may be chosen. 

Thus in case of a villa consisting merely of a basement and 
first story, it would be in accordance with the means at our 
disposal, and also with the character of the building, to sel- 
ect for the windows of the best story, which local cirmumstan- 
ces place in the basement, a stronger o'r richer motive of form, 
than for the other story. 4 winow with a cap and sill, both on 
consoles, would usually be sufficient for the richer designs; 
but the stronger motive of the angular pediment or the weaker 
one of 2 decorated cap, would be restricted to those windows 
of the same story, which are tobe specially characterized. thus 
the strongest motive must not be selected for the general one, 
leaving no means remaining for distinguishing special cases, 
requiring one to descend to a lesser motive. In the same way, 
the forms of the other and subordinate story should be reduced 
a degree, so that the best story may have its due effect. If 
the basement be also the best story, a combination of the ar- 
chitecture of the windows with the base and the cellar windows 
‘in a grouped motive, or the combined effect of these elements 
as a whole, even if not connected, will appear to bold and so 
rich, that the sills do not require the additional effect of 
corbels. . 

The windows of the upper story, in ahich are thebedrooms, b 
breakfast room, nursery, dressing rooms and guest rooms, awhile 
the best story contain the romms for social purposes as well 
as the room of the master, the common living room, etc., should 
be treated in a subordinate wayandbe simpler, therefore light- 
er and less severe. 

Conversely, if the best story be the upper one and the ground 
floor berassigned to inferior purposes, the basement must be 
simply and boldly treated and be heavier, while the upper story 
requires richer and yet strong and elesant forms. 

The Italian Renaissance may be reproached with having retain- 


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183 

retained the Loric, Iconic end Corinthian orders, as a fixed ser- 
ies of the cherecters of the stories, and called the circular qd 
pedment Ionic and the Anguler cne Corinthian, forgetting that in 
comparing round and angular pediments of equal height, the round ~ 
rediment always possesses the character of heaviness with less 
strength than the angular one; thence resulted a contradiction 
in the architecture of many talaces and houses, if Doric columns 
were entloyedin the tasenent and Ionic in the first story, but 
with alternating circular and engular pediments, as in the Pan- 
dolphini palace, Raphael’s famous building at Florence. The alt- 
ernaticn of round end anguler pedimentcerps in the same story h 
has its advantages in general, if the story contains more than — 
three windows. a certain contradiction remains even in this case, 
as may be seen on the facade of the Eartolini palace at Florence; 
the stronger motives are too much concentrated. If the caps alt-— 
ernated in case of four windows, as in the Fandolrhini ralace . 
at Florence, and the Farnese palace at Rome, a doutly ungraceful 
result is produced, since the ends are different without any rea- 
son therefor, and the middle is not accented. An alternation wo- | 
uld first tecowe suitatle in case of five windows, especially if 
angular pedizent caps were used at widdle and ends, with circular 
rediments over the intermediate windons. Falledio exployed this 
expedient in bis teeutiful Chieragati palace at Verona with goed © 
‘results. In case of @ longer series cf windows, round end angular 
pediments hshould preferatly only te employed as a means of str- i 
engthening the centre and ends. The adjoined scheres (Fig. 3€2) ' 
sive examples of ways} in which a change of motives is adwissible 
in different cases, without injury to the unity or variety. 
e. Forms of Fedirent Cars. is 
As for the forms of angular and circular pediment caps, their . 
heights may be wade about 1/4 to 2/9 of their spans. The mwopkd- 
ings cf angular end curved pedizents ere sinilar to those of hor- 
izontel caps; the two following cases may occur; the upper or ‘ 

crowning wember is either merely carried around the pediment 
cer, and omitted on the horizontal return, which terminates at 
tor merely with the member connecting the facia and the crown 
noulding, or the entire moulding is carried along the horizon- 
tel cornice on which rests the moulded gatle, and stops against — 
a slightly inclined plane. In the first case, the intermediate . 


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184 | 
fillet encloses the tympanum; in the last this is dene by the 
upper fillet b.(Fig. 363). - 

The upper tember a, if it be fully developed in front as well 
as sidewise, recuires to be slightly troken at the angle of the : 
cap, which in redlity is less disturbing, than if this be owit- 
ted and the profile te distorted at the angle. 

The vacent space enclosed by the mouldings of a circular or 
angular pediment, is properly decorated by an ornament, a shi- 
eld of arms, head, wreath, decorative sculptures, etc. (Fig. 
264), so as not to produce the impression of emptiness and hea- 
' viness; the background of this tympanum may project beyond the 
face of the well in case the pediment is supported ty consoles. 

The classic and the Renaissance styles gave the same profile 
to angular and circular pediwents as to horizontal cars, on 
which they rest. Strictly speaking, this is unnecessary; the 
vedinent is always sonetbing different fron the horizontal cap, 
and in many cases, it bas too heavy an effect, if ‘toth have | 
the same profile, in the horizontal car the seison is the prin-— 
cipal thing, but this is of secondary importance in the pedin- 
ent, and the crown would of the curved or angular pediments 
will take the first clece as teins the crowning member of the 
entire window, and the geison plays a subordinate part; it will 
therefore not be unjustifiable to make the geiscon of the angu- 
lar or curved cedirent narrower then that of the horigontal i 
cap, to allow the crown would of the former to predowinate, 
but the latter to end with merely 2 terminal meter, and to 
form the supporting lower member of a pedinent lighter than 
that of the horizontal cap (Fig. 365). 

Eroken circular pediments are produced by accenting the mid-— 
dle of the arch ty a grouped ornament of any kind (foliage, } 
suspended garlands, wreaths, shields of arms, vases, palmatigns, 
heads etc.), which ere pleced between the volute-like ends of, 
the broken curve (Fig. 366). The upper fillets of the crowning 
nenber “is curved around the eye, formed like a rosette, against 
which and the ornament die the other members. Daese broken cif- 
cular pediment carps, which are properly nothing élse that orna- 
mental crownings above a horizontal cap, permit a free treati- 
ent, which may be varied ‘in accordance with the special case i 
which they are used. 


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Ny ant 
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185 

Tf it ‘be justifiatle to break the less severe circular pedi- 
ment caps and to give them a decorative character, on the ‘con- 
trary the breaking of the angular pediments at the apex, a fa- 
yorite idea in late Roman and late Renaissance art, so that ow | 
bust or other sculpture may project above its apex, is an obj- 
ectionable expedient of a degenerate art, which passes beyond — 
its naturel liwits. A given motive may not be modified or enh- 
anced at pleasure, but only within certain lizits prescribed | 
ty its purpose. Kany things indeed exist, which according to 
general principles are more or less pleasingly formed, but the 
justificetion of their existence is not based on their pleas- 
ing appeagance ., but on the purpose which they may serve, as | 
we have fully stated. This pleasing effect only takes the first 
place in free ornament. 
x. Cap with fSonsoles. 
If the cers are supported by cortels, these flank the -jambs 
on either side. The ears are then test omitted. The consoles 
project directly from the wall face or from a pilaster of equal 
width, which wey te flat or be tordered by an architegave moul- 
ding (Fig. 367). The breadth of this pilaster will be decided © 
ty the fact that the conscle, to appear capable of supporting — 7 
the cap, cust bave a greater height than breadth; the higher — 

it is, the narrower it way te, but the lower it is, the wider. 

it should te. Ibe breadth of the pilaster must be determined 
accordingly, but in normal cases it will be narrower than the 
architrave of the window. If the projection be broad in case 
of relatively low consoles, the architrave of the-window must — 
te wade proportionally narrower, as in Fig. 367, since the en- 
tire finish of the window would otherwise eppear too wide in — 
proportion to the clear width cf the window. a 

This pilaster always requires some projection from the mall 
face, and paneled eshlars mey not therefore abut against it, 
but must te seperated from it by a margin. If the window has © 
a base beneath the sill, the pilesters require separate bases. 
The effect of the pilasters will vary in accordence with th- 
eir sections, and eccording to whether they are behind the ~ 


sires to lessen the projection of the carps of the windows at , 
each end, the consoles may te placed directly stove the jambs 


eee age 


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| eh | e9oefeg bas ebwkbited otfsny to ewobdatt .s 
Eb{tud offsoy to ewobein sdt te etotoesriore sty x08 


ae | 


186 
and the lintel of the windon, so as to enclose the frieze tet- 


ween then (Fig. 366). They then take the sane breadth es the 
-jamts, and their projection is determined ty their section. 

The consoles themselees, as we have seen, are either low and 
broad as in Pigs. 366, 367, 3€8 and 3€9, or are high and narron, 
as in Figs. 364, 370 and 371. Consoles resting on a base and 
supporting @ sill way te arranged as in Fig. 372. 

In cortels under sills, a difference ‘is to be made, whether 
they stand teneath the architrave (Fig. 370) or under a pilas- 
ter as in Pig. 371. a further difference consists in their te- 
ing upright es in Figs. 3€6, 267, or suspended es in Figs. 3€8, 
269, i.e, whether the eye about which is coiled the volute is 
above or below. For pediment cars, narron and high consoles as 
in Fig. 364, are preferatie to broad and low ones, which are 
more suitatle for lighter ears end sills. ke 

Ealcony conscles, two examples of which have been given in 
Fig. 273 and 374, generally require strong projections of 2 
told character. It will frequently be necessary to arrange 
several consoles ebove each other like cortels, so that each - 
surrorts the one next etove itself. Ibis is particularly neces-— 
sary in designing tay windons, which reouire strong supports, 
not for structurel but for esthetic reasons. Such corbtelled 
arrengerents may be most simply profiled by being allowed to 
project slightly sidewise end strongly in front (Pig. 375); 4 
decorative forms may te enployed instead of uouldings. 

For ordinery house construction, using eut stone, @ horizon- 
tal window lintel is most suitatle for practical and esthetic 
reasons. Even in trick construction, for which the straight a 
arch wey be used, one prefers not to employ arched windows in 
the construction of houses, at least not for living-roors, but 
for stairney halls; for practical reesons tecause arched wind- 
ows admit less light then if rectengular and of equal height, 
and for esthetic reasons sincé itcisitoi.givesthe house a char- 
acter differing fron thet of palaces and public buildings. For 
the same reasons, one should te satisfied in house construction 
with the modest artistic expedients elready descrited, end res- 
erve richer and bolder forms for putlic buildings and palaces. 

2. Windows of public tuildings and palaces. 

For the architecture of the windens of public tuildings and 


wae eee 


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text? edt to sotssrebrenos Yoiatureteb edt ,ssoefo4 
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fi ne Ba69Td OF fom aS of ,Bseu0d ak exobatw to aletnrl asae 
: ‘ed Ifiw [etati edt .yraoeem rsldas slyste al .slbbis 
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fs 10 wolod bowzot ef essist s isda nsyqsd yeu +i 980 
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gdt  9e0 yew fotati © bus adust ont to baagguoo suastidore 
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smenoo .2ame fo yd bodroqgyue od sisge tana annoloos. sit to ales 
sd yen svitouw wobatkw aidt ylisai® .abitayiso to aslo 
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co ‘\,eneloo %6 egaetesifg x9Vv0 

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iy Qe 
a 
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grea 


187 
palaces, the determining consideration of the first importance 
is that the windows are generally larger and ligwt rooms of ¢€ 
greater depth, than in houses, and further that the external - 
walls are thicker. Consequently the windows require greater 
width and height, their jamts are wider and their axial dist-- 
ances are greater. These tuildings fron the requirements thet 
they fulfil are also on a larger scale, more sélid and massive 
than are usually houses, and therefore require tolder artistic 
expedients than they dc. The greattr width cf the windons is 
first of all, since this has a decided effect. If the windons. 
are rectangular, careful attention must be paid to retoving 
the load from the lintel, which must heve a greater height 
then lintels of windows in houses, so as not to break at its 
niddle. In simple ashlar masonry, the lintel will be a single 
block, to relieve it the stones lying above it must be suppor- 
ted by corbelling and redial ‘jointing (Fig. 376). If -jauts are 
used, it may happen that a frieze is formed below or atove the 
architrave woulding as at a or bt, Fis. 376) A perfectly corres- 
ponding cese is that in which the lintel of the window forms 
aneomrlete entablature supported by filesters, which like it- 
self prajectfrom the wall face. (Fis. 277). This entatlature 
hes its crowning cornice, with or without pediment. a seperate 
arcbitrave composed of two jambs and a lintel may enclose the 
opening. If the eilasters are replaced by columns, we obtain 
the canopy window, such a favorite in the bigh Renaissance, i 
with all its consequences, the pedestal, perforated parapet, 
etc. Eut this window architecture requires either a told reces- 
sicn of the stories to allow the columns and their pedestals 
to stand free in front of the face of the nall, or the pedes- 
tals of the columns must egain te supported by columns, cons- 
oles or caryatids. Finally this window motive way be developed 
into complete tay windows, enriched by doutling the columns, 
or by the aid of pilasters, or may be changed into the freq- 
uently employed loggia wotive py the introduction of arches 
over pilasters or columns. ; 

The arched window is developed in the simplest way from ash- 
lar construction. Reference is here wade to the general stete- 
nents concerning openings in walls made under a. The palace 
architecture of the Italian Renaissance developed the arched - 


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188 
window in the most complete wanner; the arches are absolutely 
required by the great spans of the windows. As previously sta- 
ted, its form results from the principle of construction, eith- 
er a special stone architrave teind formed, which projects from 
the wall fece, and which may te crowned by an entatleture and 
vedinent or a circuler cap, or the archivolt moulding is wrou- 
ght on the ashlars themselves. If the winden is so large that 
the glass requires interzediate divisions, these are provided 
by the use of small columns or Cilasters, which linit the ope- 
nings in the window, the motives of the windows of the early 
Florentine palaces. the swall columns are covered by a horiz- 
cntal lintel or spanned ty arches, the tyzpanum over them being 
crerforated, so that a kind of window tracery is preduced, with 
the same meaning as that cf the middle ages. If the window con- 
sists of three divisionsit naturally results, in case no hori- 
vontal lintel is used, that the middle part is made as high as 
possible, end the spandrels are filled by circles (Fig. 378 a). 
In case of a horizontal lintel, a large circle in the center 
with e swaller one at each side is an appropriate arrangement. 
(Fig. 378 bt). 

A horizontal lintel (Fis. 372 bt) does not generally look well, 
if tbe tympanum of the window is filled ty circles or by other 
closed figures, since tbe tangency of a complete circle and a 
streight line is less good esthetically, than if it were tang-_ 
ent to one or more curved lines. Cne of the test proportions 
for windows of three divisions is ottained ty dividing the di- 
eueter in three equal perts, descriting small cirtles on 1/3 
the diameter next each springing, theyn drawing a larger circ- 
le between them end the semicircle, letting the semicircles 
of each division of the window be tangent to these three cir- 
cles (Fige 278 c). The springing points are thereby lowered, 
end the upper tracery gains in inportence. 

Another rotive for dividing windows in two or three parts, 
only atplicatle te rectenguler windows, is te tlace horizontal 
lintels above the window jegts, forming transom lights actove 
them ty means cf sbort pilasters connected ty horizontal lint- 
els also. (Pig. 279 a). Ibis errangenent is particularly ‘justi- 
fied when the transomws are fixed, only the lower portion of t 
the window teing ope ed. Ihe central vertical wullion nay then 


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be treated as 2 surrerting pilaster. In windows of this kind 
conteining three divisions, the central transom bar may be om- 
itted, so es to make the central windon higher than the side 
windows. Ihe different mullions may likewise Sarrort circles - 
and sewicircles (Fig. 370 t). 
2. Ibe Curch Windcu. 

The churbh window fells outside the limit of ordinery cons- 
truction, toth from its considerable dimensions and especially 
by its height, as well es ty its purpose of lighting the House 
of Cod, and must avoid everything of e secular naturein its 
appearance; therefore all decorative expedients must be avoid- 
ed, which tend to recall the construction of houses and palaces. 
fhe considerable thickness of the walls afford broad -jambs,that 
are usually stleyed with or “without mouldings. If the windows 
are not simtle openings tetween piers or columns supporting 
entatletures, but are spanned ty arches, 211 the forms of arc- 
hes perwissible in secular architecture are to be excluded, w 
mith the exception of the indispensatle semicircular and poin- 
ted arches, which if slightly rointed or a depressed pointed 
arch, is always appropriate in church arcbhitectwre, if a cert- 
ain effect is to be croduced. For churth architecture, unless 
the forms of classic temples are not capriciously iniroduced 
therein, will always return to the forus introduced ty the 
middle ages, wore than secular architecture, assuring that the 
constructive principle is to govern. Cn esthetic grounds, the 
rointed arch retains its superiority over the circular arch, 
if properly used. Thus in e group of three church entrances or 
church windows, @ pointed earch between two semicircular ones 
gives a more varied appearance, than three semicircular arches 
side by side. On the cther hand in using the pointed arch, we 
are not obliged to accept 311 the consequences which resulted 
fron it in Gothic. If we do not destre to build exactly in the 
Gothic style, but to rationally derive the architectural forms 
from structural and esthetic requirements, still in many spec- 
ial ocuestions of church architecture, we shall touch on the 
Gothic style, tut must before all else avoid everythings speci- 
fic to that style, and which may as well or even better be re- 
placed by other forms. 

4. Ihe Wheel Windon. 


aa. ae 


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faba ,fotns> wsitersdd edd rot sldstive ef yrs0sat wobutw’ to 
dt toodtin ,segceseye edt rot sno Lsotrtomosk ¢ltotite 
2 edt todtd .ofgte feitoo%: edt sett gakworred to vite 
ysftq kokosla yd ewobakw sbivib oF oldienod at tt bodton 
q 39 stsibenretat {steosttod tioggua dorian .1Edto. dose: svois 
" fnr09 sasdt (£56 o3t4) sedots yd bstosmaos: e7s-bae 339 
Sistate dowsdo odi to dasy sowol sdf .yot mo deen. satu 
ic cien ott ito eetrreo dotdw ,(SS8 .9f8) gelge gnc abosta 
iktaa: out. 220 soten odo Byood ted? ,2aibluom gizb s din ebas 
ae ji). )  weddabtgde, bas emobalt. sonst? 63 


| 


190 

We can never exclude the wheel window from church erchitect- 
ure. It alweys remains that form of window most pleasing and 
most spitatle for certain purposes. In case the wheel window 
is not divided ty en iron framework, on account of the glazing 
tut by stone work, one should always recur to the motives con- 
mon in the widdle eges, and either arrange radial mullions er- 
ound a centre, whose cuter ends are connected by arches in any 
way, or a spsten of perforated slebs are arranged about 4 cen- 
tre, in which the deteil forms specially telonging to the Coth- 
ic and Reomanesoue styles should be very cerefully avoided. Tbus 
a circle is e general form elways required in erchitecture, but 
the foils end cusrs of Cothic tracery teing spetific, are no 
longer necessery in church architecture. A scroll work of plant 
stems way be employed as @ wotive for the tracery of church a 
windows, in which the jointing may be horizontal, or be arran- 
ged in accordance with the princirles 6f arched construction. 

In this way may be invented tracery, whose form entirely cor- 
responds te the principle of the Renaissance style, while its 
construction and wouldings is in accordance with the mediaenal 
principle. 

5. Window Tracery. 

Vertical divisions of windows way form a system of rullions 
like those of wediaeval tracery, or a system of perforated hor- 
izontal slats of stone te pladed on each other. In this case 
likewise, the form principle cf the Renaissance admits of the 
most varied forms, scroll work, tapestry patterns, the use of 
figures, plane and ornamental decorations of all kinds. The 
mouldings are Similer in principle to those of wediaeval styles, 
even permitting a freer treatment. A freer formu of the patterns 
of window tracery is suiteble for the Christian church, a more 
strictly geometrical one for the synasceue, without the neces- 
sity cf borrowing from the Koorish style. After the classic @& 
method it is possitle to divide windows ty placing pilasters 
atove each other, which support horizontal intermediate corni- 
ces and ere connected by arches (Fig. 281). These cornices re- 
‘quire a wash on tor. The loner pert of the church window best 
stands on a splay (Fig. 282), which carries off the water, and 
ends with 2 drip woulding, that keeps the nater off the wall. 

6. Iransom Windows end Skylights. 


eds tdgkl of syrva eltaeopett awobniw (1508 
Som are ysdt i egutites eft ee [few as . fled: to 
rot tastetiio aig vow yedt ,w20t Leurdn bas yoaectbto 
it “{pavetes oft ed betiinisg 9d yee fate of bathzo 
@ srelvoriotnee .2to seo 2ofgus diin ,gnofdo 10 teinoits 
etetg ote bos trsz otankbiodeea s ysly eqents voal 
ianat: edt to taeregcetss oft ditw osasdStocoe wr beste 
Boknz0o foot ef robag osokr? ont sk boosla asattovoa ots 
2 Baas vs; , -Sisteldetas ast 
eee by ue.e4 seeblilsed | bus e1o07 «2 Soe f 
- wseopeintebaedt otfgeq ,.saoot To ayswetes bas arsob 107 
tsa eer dokde ,efieotiags ek suse sdt leetotedo bas 
Yo netttoa 8 bos .efiee at Ie1ea92 ak anntosye mo 
et toob oft .yen teelgria cdt of .ewobatw of baszer ak 
Seietatis bas einot dttw redtrs eSvsitidows as yd. Soactons 
Sboce1 dott ekatblaca yd to .sost [fen edt wort, 3attoog 
Pbdors od? .atsldes edt no tdQcoTw O18 bas scat {Law ont 
mee enon YI dtatly to batd © ofat woled beyasds a4 bfooda 
Pievatirbavets beatnse1- 10 Th. deaters gatvbd vlaefe tedtis 
HB BNE oF [XE ovat blcode ovestidote dt to woisose oak 
Vieqites sas at .zyewrooh sdf% to dvbiw sat to dtbin tes 
| besad ed? ,ereidas beaeod avicesa gteds ditw goosfs; 
tigteastiva sso0h sit to ted¢. Maw toode ef sestticors 
of 80. oos ,betostors qigeotte 19 efdsen sseqgqg [lt yon 
rc: oapenam goktoetors Qaotte © Ons ,svsvtidors sd¢ to dtbtw 
peeuroob-ad? to actasyo edi refse12 ott ,slietbeeb aon adt 
if ottett<s edt to svtfon (sztoatsy edt ono095 you bas 
id vewetes .2°to ,Lecasd s .9te2 eeasttast 10 vito. s to 
+ eietatl Istaostred atin atoob asloxastosx afar 
edt to bis odd diin asviton to satzae eniir 
SIBHTT ods (Jeo Saalsgsrst esbbe need svewtidors an! of: 
yobs n aefoeaos -:908 evitom sidt gntdottas tot enoftibbs ovt 
Ns a3 fieq s ,2eloaaoo odd sett dotdw no atetasiiy ,ys0 odd 
yhdw edoitibbs .ysqe svodse wobakn nogne1t & 10 . rote ofste 
e208 meat va eer csingehi 6lotkas@ taon sit to tins 
PON : \ eseoaetaugot£o Letoege sit 
jo exsvasls wd bodaatt saat to0b ‘sdt to evsttidore oc? .S 
ea mo etotacii sdf .orpteldatus as trozque dod .eoue 
ie site: ‘ab begne7ts 93 yeu .elesenbeq toodsin to dtia od you 


igi 

Small windows frequently serve to light the upper salleries 
of halls, as well as the ceiling. If they are not windows of 
ordinary and normal form, they may take different forms acc- 
ording to what may be permitted vty the external architecture, 
circular or oblong, with angles cut off, sewicircular, etc. 
They always play a subordinate pert and are preferably decor- 
ated in eccordance with the arrangement of the facade. They 
are sowetines placed in the frieze under the roof cornice or 
its entatlature. 

7 and 8. Coors and Catensys. 

For doors and gateways of rooms, public buildings, palaces 
and churches, the same is applicable, which was seid under a 
on openings in general in wells, and a porticn of that stated 
in regard to windows. In the simplest nay, the door is werely 
enclosed by an erchitrave, either with jambs and a lintel pro- 
pecting from the wall face, or by mouldings which recede behind 
the wall face and are wrought on the ashlars. The enrchitrave 
should be changed below into a kind of plinth by some means, 
either simply dying against it or returned around it. 

The section of the architrave should have 1/7 to 1/2 the cl- 
ear width of the width of the doorway. In the early Florentine 
palaces with their massive tossed ashtars, the breadth of the 
architraee is about half that of the door. Evidently the door- 
way will appear weakly or strongly protected, according to the 
width of the erchitreve, and a strong protection will appear 
the more desiratle, the greater the openings of the doorway, 
and may tecome the principal motive of the artistic treatment 
of a city or fortress gate, a tunnel, or a gateway bridge. 

Simple rectangular doors with horizontal lintels yield the 


following series of wotives with the aid of the calumner orders 


14. Ihe architrave hes an added friezecand cap; the progress- 
dive additions for enriching this motive are:- consoles under 
the car, pilasters on wbich rise the consoles, a tediment, an 
attic story, or a transom window atove & ear, additicns which 
adit of the wost manifold variations of form, according to t 
the special circumstances. 

9. The architrave of the door is flanked by pilasters of col- 
umns, which support an entablature. ihe pilasters or cclumns 
nay te with or without pedestals, may te arranged in pairs, the 


| ser 

do utot yess 10 ,Snomtbey s yd betavoo od yen srutelietas 

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ottw ,seso teodott odt ot Feolgyute sat noukt ,sovts 
eo ed viletoedes .baacttass ybserls atasibeaxes sas ¢d 
as aaeeani tI -tasatuotag asaoteyed bas adoold zaigatrge 
fpeenoo ers exstotss cords 10 .esosiey qasm ni es ,hebba od 
os: etkl .beowborg 946 earot feodott edt ,auose & af 
} #n02 to astee .e90efey nt sonseetened astissI edt yi be 
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bb nt betasy od yen dose {sdgeettt edt to svitow Sessa 
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eefiq befysoo tedtedw 1c .taebin ak sao olbbin sd? 40 
0d aost bas ,bees sas alstasbhsg Ssodtin to d¢ia eanaloo 
g9d¢ bevizeb ean terkt odt t9vo smo baotee 8 guroely 
eteneh yensn yt bsyolgms dows Lsdqectsd yrore-ont 5 
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=... seo dt bas ,ee38i7199 10% aege sbiw te aniaszoile 
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~ oven eid? ak acdd setwisite. qoota s al: beatdaos 
‘base yeorng tt. tO qGootk Raiawovdis .ortts as..to soi 
sz “$f patdesft yd effect so .ecottsso096 bexosaLone ke 
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I w get tettt edt to drow [syosastiooss evitsaocee 
Ppdetuoy e4%) 10. .2t83 veto # sot eviton 6.es, Segolgue od I1pe. 
ee ewnkee-: >. Potato g)to ebeoet adt 19%, es .eabtad:.e to 
aueq geig. edt cxodn ,egntbited oifdoq 10 asostsg ,eeenod, xf), 
gas ods ss0ted dosog [Ieue so bosnerse od Ofoode . atin 
> ei dosoe Rabinatosg 8 so (od ye FBP eet). yews 
soaszastze Atoyl .sosTr9s to.ynoolss 2. advorguan dotaw 
eeerere tkodt ot gakbiosos. ,awiolt oagtby. feou: ods, to 
4 _ ig -sipsoetidess ssuto edt 

ee | Biesets {szytoaksg odt ta bsew dona ete gedoToI 206 . 
on rte aq to taso908 no oldsenayelbak movte oas bas .29g039 
he ‘gnt assented bsoelz goede ote your -tedisea¢; bas. barn most 
bostosa vod? viteel 16 ,.tenot & to ytote tewol edt arot a0 
See skis edt to aapadotds sit to tavoo28 mm) .obsoat sat mo 
bivod dotde .edast: ebin vredeved egewls estiotedo to elstiog 
joy af 8 rsbay bisa ean, tenn tia soasbso008. at betsest ad 


"i ee “te : 
ers a ea 


cc. 


192 

entablature may be covered ty a pediment, or may form a balcony. 

Doors and gateways covered by arches admit of e series of mo- | 
tives, from the simplest to the richest case, with enrichments 
by the expedients already mentioned, especially by making the 
springing blocks and keystones prominent. If paneled ashlars 
be added, as in many peleces, or three sateways are connected 
in 4 group, the richest forms ere produced, like those invent- 
ed by the Italian Renaissance in palaces, gates of fortificat- 
jons end cities, and alse those erected in our tine. The last 
named wotiva of the triumphal arch may te varied in different 
ways, according to whether the openings ere of equal widths, 
or the middle one is widest, or whether coupled pilasters or 
columns with or without pedestals are used, and from this by 
rlacing a second one over the first was derived the notive of. 
a two-story triumphal erch employed iy many Reneissance church- 
es. Ihe motive of the triumphal arch is likewise best suited 
to magnificent city gates and will so remain, since the centr- 
al opening of wider spen for carriages, and the narrower side 
cpenings for persons on foot, can scarcely be tore properly c 
combined in a group otherwise than in this way. Ey the addit- 
ion of an attic, 2 crowning group of figures, end especially 
of sculptured decorations, or lastly by flanking it with two 
successive towers, the motive of the triumphal arch forms a da 
decorative architectural work of the first rank, which may es 
well be employed as a motive for a city gate, or the portal 
of a bridge, eas for the facade of a church. 

In houses, palaces or putlic buildings, where the plan per- 
nits, should be arranged ea small porch before the entrance. 
doorway (Fig. 383 a, tb), or @ projecting porch is constructed, 
which supports a talcony or terrace. Eoth arrangements admit 
of the most varied forms, eccording to their connection with 
the cther architecture. 

Such porches are much used at the principal entrances of ch- 
urches, and are often indispensable on account of protection . 
from wind and weather. They are then placed between two towers, 
or form the lower story of a tower, or lastly they project fr- 
om the facade. On account of the thickness of the walls, the 
portals of churches always have wery wide jambs, which should 
be treated in accordance with what was said under a in general. 


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: fons 93 of otigoss fsds ahatasgo.9te: ced? .aesorisy 
ov jo Eb dorms etd .bodors aysalocttoals.sas ysdi.sodts 
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ok: 86 sheds sot atastbeyxs\ Ioreten taom. odd midtiiliw 
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‘193 

They should always Raye wore or less nearly approximate the 
church portals of the Remanesoues style in their external form, 
yet avoiding all that could recall then. This is caused by the 
given conditions, which lead to like results under similar cir- 
cumstances. 

G9. Portals of Tunnels, Culverts, Cateway Eridges, 0 
Openings for Ventilation, HEmbrasures, etc. 

‘All openings in walls comprised under this title and stivais 
curely material needsusually require but 2 smell amount of dec- 
oration, which is entirely dependent on the part played by the 
tuilding or structure. In a city, tunnels, sate bridges, other 
bridges and fortifications, require greater expenditure for 2 
architectural purposes, than if in a wild wountain solitude; 
tut even the least of such necessary buildings wust fulfil th- 
eir purpose in the most complete way, and a form must be given 
to them by the human intellect, beyond the requirements of at- 
solute necessity. 

funnels for reilnays, canals or other highways, will always 
be located where stone is to be found, suitable for structural 
purposes. They are openings that require to te enclosed, and 
since they are almost slways arched, this arch will of. itself 
form the enclosure. Rusticated ashlers, bold archivolt mould- 
ings, @ prominence of the springing and key stones of the arch, 
will form the most natural expedients for their decoration. 
Facades are sometimes built in front of tunnels, which may te- 
crowned ty a cornice with battlements or a parapet flanked ty 
angle towers, and decorated ty shields of arms and inscribed 
tablets. In general, a11 surerfluous decoration is to be avoid- 
ed, in case it is not in a city and is also exposed to view of 
persons on foot. The tine for otserving the architecture of a 
tunnel while traveling on a railway is usually so brief, the 
change of inpressions is so repid while in notion, that the 
portal of the tunnel is only momentarily seen and its form is 
‘quickly forgotten. It is somewhat different if a street extends 
alons the railway, so that rersons on foot have time and oppor- 
tunity for exatining the structure. 

It is generally advisatle in engineering works and fortifica- 
tions for sake of economy, to make the most extensive use of 
rock faced ssbler masonry. From it such structures derive a 


ae: oh bel 

wot ¢tterg [14 .dtyusrte' bas essatesnies to yetoeteds 
beomted ton of yods sonte .sesavatds ati nsbdidro? ylorts 

Spe © seetetooite svteeen cilemae sesdt to ratos1ed9 ade 

eduem Satuwors 2 es sflistias egenfs o1¢. stnoneltts?. 

Se Sts 10% sevttow svitostts bws ofguta « yotrrot sessosd 

oe sdtf yatifedros ,alodioo evtesss .sectutes te eaot 


; 


_ a*soser sit to stasiberrs elinta bot wobute ves 4 
(eeoded ytteino wetyed? 098 seltetive ota tis e*rartes 
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qB2009709 Tiss? ys botieoss 28 tact: bas slyarestsl teed 
5 Prem pesaeee neh of eoti £1 .tnengoleveh rediaet ts 
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es pekurteoson evon od? .coktsool baassonstragat siedt 
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as 50: a Lefistea odd yd soaiggos er asdd: .9adodels aton 
he ee eeieenions Te9gq8 tdbta sedt ifs. yathFovs isto 
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PRE BORA, oe ba) pBRIOITBT 68s Me hed 
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sit at ehoole gatvsg tea. useols ti slid or elses 


a 


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he ou ty Pad ¥ 
a ee 


194 
character of earnestness and strength. All pretty forms are eén- 
tirely forbidden in this case, since they do not harmonize with 
the character of these usually massive structures. 

Rattlenents are always suitable as a crowning member of nalls 
because forwing a simple and effective motive. For the praject- 
ions of cornices, massive cortels, corbelling like that under 
a bay window and siniler expedients of the mason’s and stone- 
cutter’s art ere suitatle. See Charter on City Cates. : 

Embresures, openings for ventilation and similar subordinate 
openings in walls, openings for discharge of water, etc., are 
best left simple and just as required by their purposes, with- 
out further development. It lies in the nature of the case, 
that openings in nalls should be treated in accordance with t 
their importance and location. The more subordinate their imrp- 
ortance, the less emphasis should be laid on making their forms 
nore elaborate, than is reouired by the material need, theref- 
ore avoiding all that might appear pretentious. The solidity 
of the wasonry must ce the predominating means with careful 
execution, which determines the appeasance of the tuilding. 

The Earoceo period indeed went so far as te decorate the embr- 
asures of fortifications, one of many errors that we rust avoid. 
B. FLOCRS. 
1. Stone Favements. 

Stone pavements for streets, sauares anc courtyards, etc. are 
either composed of specially prepered paving stones, or of sto- 
nes from rivers, or of Quarried stones. In our era stone pave- 
nents are seldom exployed for which a decorative appearance is 
intended. When such is desired, paving blocks of two colors a 
are used, by the aid of which simple enclosed panels nay te f 
formed; the stones must evidently all te of equal hardness. In 
earlier times such pavements were wade of stones of different 
shapes, i-€., of cubes and oblong forms. Such a raverent is f 
found on the cathedral hill in Trieste (Fig. 384) end a-simil- | 
ar one is in Rome. q 

Fleasing pavements have been constructed in different places, | 

4 


of river stones and broken stones, which must all have approxi- 

nately the same size. Cenerally square panels are formed with 

the lerger stones, whose diagonals are also indicated, or oblong 
renels are filled by closely set peving tlocks. If the river | 

( 


eet 
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id 4 foo 8d Yee astwatt etersyee -buod enodautated: mt 
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at bawot 93 ot 918 ataemsvsg.doge to esignsre sat 
tut "8: TI9v. ~earsttsy to ¢istzay Tasteeth sdt of nabbed 
moat serezit staqsqea, dtin bas senove stevia to betousss 
pedal? emose to aTool® of 4.4). 4. 
» gate edels enota to syoolt to bart seolynge on? . 
a to besozmoo tedt et ,eeitio tt etnomevsg:evitas 
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4 tt fie ,infteognt sts somevolt to qtid edt to asaousvex Le 
| s8aot to edoold bas adele tee ylfuterss dos satel ytsv 
! 9 ‘Yo ezoolt sd? Snftevod a0T beeg doom ote edele stand 
t Aa | -Bbteysic0> .pegssesy bat siobizt0>. .gsludissev .a3 
x, to sbsiid besoloo yisasisttkb sec ot ak Seddon adkrov 
her to geutoege A .noteeon sdtl enzottes. Soaboxs 
i to GeRoynoo ef enzolod ok nost9) .f mort sitoass 
pia sence fediidord to gotegit betxsent ems dobdn ofus 
. etida to miele to stataapo soely ames edt. norsk emo 
ae bas box to petogit Oéelot ylasiuses sas dokdn okt 
Dok Faeeaayor yee asoolt sisson Hes aetetssal oes 
mkeoguod emggkt seve io ,goxsitsa yisesyss {staeusnt0 
esate to Tesbodteo edi aivbas seguod.asteggol yasu wt 
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a tod -bolegans od ton tana gedé .adoiad baaolos yoliae 
etseqae ii9ds aketer of as oo. ebateofos tiea yleorkias 
wdieetarsy yluo ton, ei. tL .gntqzile tasveig of bas see 
ne ettool bsbinos to etaguevaq doing; sism of a99077 save 
| at fm ssodi gllctooqst .asdaye ofsacn, sot beiiue 215 eugot 
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feo 083 betssy taow sd¢ at boao exe se0d? .aletister brsd 
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195 
stones are long and oval, they ere usually!laid in the pavement 
in herringbone bond. Seperate figures may be composed of smell 
stones with river or broken stones in pavements like mosaics. 
Fine exauples of such pavements are to be found in Freiburg in 
Eaden, in the greatest variety of patterns, very carefully con- 
structed of river stones and with separate figures like nosaics. 

2. Floors of Stone Slats. 

The simplest kind of floors of stone slats, also employed for 
entire pavements 6f cities, is that composed of stone blocks \ 
like the encient street pavements. In this respect the polyson- 
al pavenents of the Gity of Florence are imposing, with their 
very large and carefully set slats and tlocks of stone. 

Souare slabs are much used for covering the floors cf church- 
es, vestitules, corridors and passages, courtyards, etc. 4 fa- % 
vorite method is to use differently colered kinds of marble to 
produce patterns like rosaics. A stecimen of ancient stone in- } 
tersia from §. Gereon in Cologne is composed cof Rhenish slate, 
into which ere inserted figures of Eroblthel sufa¢ a second 
one from the same place consists of slats of nhite sandstone, . 
‘in wbich ere regularly inlaid figures of red and green porthy- 


ry. Intarsias end mosaic floors may represent geometrical or a 
ornamental tapestry ratterns, or even figure compositions, @s- : 
in uany Foureian houses and in the catbedral of Siena. } 

3. Floors of Ericks and Tiles. } 


Ordinary trick peving is aiways laid in regular bond, and 
the ornamental tonds are recommended for bricks set on edge, 
which produce patterns of all kinds. If it is desiratle to 
employ colored bricks, they wast not be enaweled, but must be 
entirely self colored, so as to retain their appearance after 
use and to prevent slipping. It -is not only perwissitle but | 
even proper to make brick paverents of moulded tlocks, whose 
forms are suited to e mosaic systet. Escecially those with 
congruent figure elesents, to eccent the solidity. Artificial 
stone may else be used instead of tricks if composed of very 
hard materials. These are used in the most varied geometrical 
vatterns. Hither flat pressed, raised or sunken tiles are en-- 
tloyed for tile floors. The first way have the pattern burnt | 
on in different colors, as on the Hettlach tiles. The patterns 
alnays form a network like tapestry, in case of either flat or 


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rressed tiles, whose forms depend on the stamp by ubich they 
are impressed. The same ground principles are aprplicatle to 
tiles set in malls, only that glazed or vitrified tiles should 
de used, that are less suitable for pavenents because of bhe 
danger cf slipping. 
4. Floors of artificial Stone. 

Concrete floors ere composed of concrete, cement, or gypsum, 
laid on a bottom layer of bricks. A pattern may tbe preduced ty 
nizing different colors in the mess. A very suitable treatment 
is thet employed in Michelangelo’s Library of S. Lorenzo at 
Florence, where the forms of the floor ere directly based on 
those of the ceiling. 

| 5. Wooden Floors. 

fhe only wooden floors here mentioned will te those of par- 
quetry. Ibey are either solid, i.¢., composed of matched pie- 
ces of wood, or are veneered. In all cases they are wood mosa- 
ics or intarsias, which determines their form and prescribes 
their limitations. The wosaic syster is especielly suited to . 
detemmine the forms of veneered floors, since the separate ele 
ements are cut from tlocks, having the corresponding cross sec- 
tions. 

FP. TREATWMENT OF TBE MASS OF A EUILDINC. 
4. Height and Character of the Stories. 

The heights of the stories are determined ty the heights of 
the rooms, and these depend cn their areas. An old school rule 
gives us a basis, that the height of a room should equal 2/3 
to 3/4 its width, or its lenéth + breadth | or the half diago- 
nal of the tlan. These ratios afford starting points that may 
often be useful. The Eaukunde der Architekten, [1, fr. 7€, gives 
4.4 to 9.€ fi as the least beight of living rooms for human be- 
ings; the largest and finest room of @ house, that is 19.7 x 
29.5 ft., will not appear too lon if its height te 14.75 ft. 
The proportions for houses and villas ‘introduced by the Dresden 
school may be used as averarce proportions. The depth of the f 
front roors is assumed to te 19.7 to 21.3 ft., and the height 
of stcries as measured from top to tor of flicor; for the btase- 
ment story of 2 detached villa, 1299€ ft.; for its upper story 
12.15 ft; for a city house with shors in the basewent story, 
the heights of stories from telon upwerd are 14.8, 13.95, 13.45, 


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197 
and 12.k ft.In case the depth of the front rooms be 14.8 ft., 
the above mentéoned book gives 10.5 to 11.45 ft. as the height 
of story for houses for renting. In Vienna and Eerlin are to 
te found stories of 16 ft. and over. ‘At least 5.9 ft. is neces- 
sary for the clear height of rooms in wezzanine stories. The 
trincipal stories of palaces and chateaus measure from 16.4 to 
36.15 ft. frou floor to floor. 


Euildins. Easement. Wain Story. 
Dresden, Cppenhein falace 16.20 16.60. ft. 
Eerlin, Royal Balece 20.00 21.50 
Eerlin, Conrad’s House 15.40 17.70 
Dresden, Kapher Felace 17 +20 12.40 
Eerlin, Cld Falace (Schloss) 23.00 
Caserta, Royal Falace 26.25 
Faris, Louvre : 27085 
Florence, Strezzi Palace 20.20 
Rome, Farnese Falace 29-50 
Florence, Fitti Falace 326.10 


This extract from Eaukunde, II, p- 75, gives a series of well 
known palaces, the heights of whose stories may be taken as nor- 
mals for public tuildings also. School rooms must te at least 
11.5 ft. high in the clear, or 13.1 ft. for classes of 100 pu- 
pils. The large hall or singing hall must be at least 16.4 ft. 
high. The preceding heights of the stories of relaces are int- 
imately connected with their external architecture. 

The external character of the storier, their purposes and t 
their beights, ere always intimetely connected. ihe cellar stos 
ry of houses or of gutlic buildings, will always be subordinate, 
even if containing living roows. Its height does not exceed 
thet of the tase of the building, and it requires a plain and 
massive treatment. 

The basement way have ea different purpose. It is occupied 
by shops in city houses, which reouire the widest show windows 
rossible, or by modest city dwellings. it is very commonly the 
crincipal story of villas, as we have already seen, and conta- 
ins the rooms for social purroses, while the urrer story is oc- 
cupied ty tedrooms, roows for guests, nursery, ctc. In the last 
case, the besement is always the most richly decorated story. 

The first story is generally the princiral story, both in 


i 
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houses for rental, as well as in palaces and public buildings, 
and its external appearance must therefore express this in its 
architecture. Consequently it will be most richly and elegant- 
ly treated, while the basement is simple and massive. If a m@z- 
ganine story is added, it must be treated with discretion, like 
the first story. 

A second or third story always plays a subordinate part. In 
large houses for rental, these stories contain perhaps two or 
three sepavate flats, while the principal story conteins only 
a single dwelling of high charecter. The second and third sto- 
ries are accordingly to be more simply treated. 

An uppermost story, that contrasts with the basement in buil- 
dings of three or more stories, should in very many cases be 
formed like a wide band connected with the principal cornice,. 
and terminating the building at its tor in a characteristic 
way. Since it ssually appears too low and light in comparison 
with the heavy messes of the lower story, it should also be a. 
nore lightly and ornamentally treated, and it may frequently 
be connected with dormer windows or crowning gables. To conn- 
ect together the windows of the upper story, wall panels, nich- 
es with figures, ercades etc. are arranged. 

An attic may be placed above the principal cornice, behind 
vbich is concealed a story in the roof, or it may be character- 
ized ty dormer windows, or a so-called mansard roof may be con- 
structed. 

In rare cases the upper story of a house containing several 
stories is the princiral story, as in many Italian cities, wh- 
ere the best story is ¢laced at the top on account of the fresh 
sir and fine vieu, while the loner stories are devoted te suk- 
ordinate purposes, offices or less expensive dwellings. 

2. Water latles, String Courses and Cornices. 
a. Water Tables. 

Host buildings ere limited at totton by a base, which forms 
the transition frou the masonry of the foundation to that of 
the basement and projects in front of the wall face-by about 
the difference in the thickness of the walls. If cellar-wihde 
ows are employed, they can be arranged in the base, which ext- 
ends around the building like a wide band. 

The base most properly begins with a broad member and is cr- 


| 
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199 
crowned by a cat, above which begins the lower part of the loa- 
er story (Fig. 385 a). The top of this cap is at the same hei- 
ght as the top of the beams of the internal floor. The lower | 
member is usually seperated from the die of the base by a base ) 
menter (Fig. 385 t), and is inclined if necessary: the car is : 
also with a crowning wember and a supporting lower menber (Fig. 
385 c); its upper surface is inclined, and its edge may also te 
inclined formard (Fig. 385 d). Above the wash of the cap is ¢l- 
aced the tase member frorer of the wall, which way te broken 
around any existing projections beneath windows. These projec- 
tions may be formed in different nays, as we have already seen, 
according as their external appearance is to te relatively high 
or low, and if a separate windon sill is arranged, this with 
the tase member may te changed into a second base above the 
cap of the base proper. In given cases many special solutions 
may te derived from the ‘internal requirements, a few specimens 
of which are given in Figs. 343, 348 and 350, from Frofessor 
Nicolai of the Dresden school. 

In palaces and public buildings, the base assumes @ greater 
importance, and avails itself of stronger means of expression. 
In a few Florentine palaces, it projects consideratly as a seat. 
The bases of churches generally require a strong projection to 
correspond to their considerable height. 

Th cities where dwellings ere found in cellars, the base of- 
ten has 2a consideratle height to afford a greater height of 
windows. It is not possitle to go into the endless number of 
distinct solutions cf the formation of the tases of buildings, 
to plece ther under a common point of view. here sometimes 
exist diversities in the ground, peculiar dispositions in the 
plan, the connection of the base with the principal entrance, 
with terraces or external steps, which lead te special arran- 
gerents. Projections of the masonry, columns, tilasters, with 
or without vedestals, influence the form of the base, as well 
as rusticated masonry, which is much used for the tase, furth- 
er cellar and subcellar windows, etc., windows of crypts in 
churches, etc. The base will always te modified according to | 
the form, arrangement and proportions of the windows of the 
basement story. . 

‘A consideratle influence is then exercised ty the fact, whe- 


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aie sedtsdhi .svois txcso sno odd aor? grote sa9reesd 
94 Ete 200 "9 SeBtg0o antite ed Oorsisyse 93 of{oote est 
: ®8 astz0t%e off to to¥os vedo ‘bas tedae0. aut yd bed 
‘wo sonstseggs Selon ¢ TI .yotblked sdt to dransf 
‘scenes >, BaUEb( ied yiote avit to. 150% sk Hbebiove sd of af 
ay mt boterszes od yaa eniassson ods istw yiote Sasanesd oet 

wa wegyo sav bee ,sempo> gutate s et yrote I[stiontss edt 
haa otf diesaed ecods wort yen suse ond ot Bsbtyib 

Piusrsttib ee od biwoda seatcoo aakate. to anzot anf 
) Bivode yodt ex0toweds ps0rw109 adi to evode nord afd 
foo oF Ton 88 Of ,yteeRsoon ned? sorfoetorg 1Sttae7s 
| -sortos,osg tkods gi yxots free at to tasz  soORO! 
sit ysotp Leqtoauitqg odd ofstejee fest eoersso ontete 
> seisn dtin sostsy s to tetanoo ylisues 4 woloed tro 
}eexcoo gaiata off .(98§ .8f8) arakbdinos ‘aswol bae 22. 
to goasutuoty eft of gakbyox>s totdatt to tetvsed 159 
wotune ed {fiw 3D .exsdmemw sds fo surot ady-bas con 
| ont .efttaeb to soktouboxint ant ¢d donsdtanatta 
‘Yte beef of costuse t99g0 Oeatfoar a8 ovsd ayenis tens 
ted svitoetts oeeke vi .8v00' Ss seottin Go ditw . red 
| -Sso0bs7 3d yee seiveo adt 

e1BID2) ad yst) Sanvoo Qatate séd ,angteeb sedorz al 
okisbrod ¢ sd ysu dotdén dfsonsd ,sseist s yi [flew odt 


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200 
whether the spaces under the. windows project or are recessed 
tack of the well face. Also by the arrangement of shops, whose 
large show windows render a low base desirable. 

A base will be in vlece in the principal story in many cases. 
Tt then usually hes a slight projection and consists of a plin- 
th, and a flat or moulded and decorated band, whose height cor- 
responds to that of the window sills. 

Flust or slightly trojecting string courses with upper and 
lower wenbers may appropriately te used at the height of the 
window Sills and caps, at the ears in rectangular, or the hei- 
ght of the springing of the arches over round headed windows; 
they sutdivide the stories in smaller divisions, and may te 
desiratle for producing an animated division of the wall. 

8. String Courses. 

String courses are sometimes employed for separating the sto- 
ries. At least the principal story must be separated ty @ str- 
ing course from the one next telow it, or if it te itself the 
basement story, from the one next above. Whether all the stor- 
jes should te saparated by string courses or not, will ke deci- 
ded by the number and character of the stories as well as the 
length of the tuilding. If a ruled appearance of the buildings 
is to be avoided in four or five story buildings, perbaps only 
the besement story with the mezzanine may be seperated from 
the principal story ty @ string course, and the upper story te 
divided in the same nay from those beneath it. 

The forms of string courses should be as different as possi- 
tle from those of the cornice; therefore they should have no 
greatter projection than necessary, So as not to conceal the 
lower part of the next story by their projection. ihe larger 
string courses that separate the principal story from. that 
next telow, usually consist of a geison with water drir, upp- 
er and lower mouldings (Fig. 386). Ihe string course will app- 
ear heavier or lighter according to the prominence of the gei- 
son and the forws of the menmbers. It will te enriched and 
strengthened by the introduction of dentils. The string course 
must always have an inclined upper surface to lead off the na- 
ter, with on without a cove, by which the effective height of 
the course mey be reduced. 

In richer designs, the string course may be separated from 
the wall ty a frieze, teneath which way be a bordering wemter. 


aie tio see ee 


{ od teow esitota s9d¢0 sdt to seets0y gntita ad? 
fo edt scott belttosy eltasssttio oF bas tasckzory 
o& etedmens as"ol bas ‘teage add Raissezzai ys 19030 
gin esamatiomeaay qi 20 ,@kost ond to sdtted ads deter 
; gakade edt goinzolt gi yliesf{ to , ave 10. hanot 
; eurot yistaesels reqoug edt ott tf gaisnegaoo .a70 
dm > 98 oer * Satphaie ytesmn eaod? (CRE 928) yew al 
‘a0 . o>) e@8artk @ dtix 
ai hiin yattte te etic andieie Sit atg190eb of 
1 od fon Bluow studoetido1s suotgas to eiastosaxs cd? 
e edt to Sav0s0s so ssasod tot bas nottourtadcs snore 
; taodtiw [fsx edool ti teds ,b9ttu097 ad seem tT 
snolis ef ysm yroxel aids .grsutn0s edd a0 .e9i102899 
ue fio of Sarbr00068 ,sodotsds bas eoceisq ,syatolbnd off 
Ped? toe? edt no dtsl 9d of ef aastta Lsgioat17 edt bas 
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| oe Mo ontdeave deen eds 12bam exuibliod wisiz dite Llow 
edd to Sonsupsen09 af snota to. aakmetie) edt dtiw bos 
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| st ‘edt of eIseo0f> stom otedSs of dad >, s0rietnonan 
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| peldon som SdRtL gadtta,acoté193012 de397) tadtken 
, etre qlsritas Saotitrbaes tot essomsvolis coisa tacn 
ye ! ,e9otato) .y | 
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: 19 bas Saktsniwrss to ene [sabi odd.bas ,retiay s 
yob oofnt00 sdd to ddgied sal .3gfbl ind sodd toes 
sstewod to ,gotdosto1g efi’, 4e0ebo77 194 ef Toatts 
“ySotat09 edt tedztd of: .dostersq ylsortt ren os¢olzss 
E aenol sdi bus ,aottsojorg -oiusesyqes aabdliad adt lite 
$a to rsdana ott sowot off .gnkbliod sd¢ noee [fin edatd 
sdt tot atetce yrtesooen esses oat ehotGited, sui 
agatbited wolf 18 sesotamb> sds sroteted?: .dgid 1097 
t $ edt .wol geno dgid to bas: .daid ylieucitig9073 
sa? seobics ac svied yas somesetsase® asiiedI 909 to agateit 
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201 

fhe string courses of the other stories must be kept less yp 
crrowinent and te differently profiled from the principal one, 
either ty increasing the upper and lower members so as to din- 
inish the height of the facia, or ty rpblacing it by a quarter 
round or cove, or lestly ty forwing the string course at pleas- 
ure, composing it from the proper elementary forms in a suita- 
ble way (Fig. 367). These string,courses tay also te combined 
with a frieze. | 

To decorate the separate parts of string courses by means of 
the expedients of antioue architecture would not be normal in 
stone construction and for houses on account of the expense. 
It must be required, that it looks well without decorative ac- 
cessories. Cn the contrary, this luxury may be allowed in pub- 
lic buildings, palaces and churches, according to circumstances, 
and the principal stress is to be laid on the fact, that these 
ornaments also contribute to the effect; therefore we shall do 
well with plain buildings under the week sunshine of our North, 
and with the darkening of stone in consequence of the abundant 
coal smoke, not to lose ourselves in the finesse of Crecian or- 
namentetion, but to adhere more closely to the severe forms of 
Rowan and Renaissance architecture as models. Since we have n 
neither Greek proportions, strong light nor notle warble, we 
must wake allowances for conditions entirely different. 

y. Cornices. 

the wain cornice hes the meterial purpose of projecting the 
masonry from rain as much as possitle, as well as to receive 
a gutter, and the ideal one of terminating and crowning the 
top of the tuilding. The height of the cornice depends on the 
effect to te produced, its projection, or how far the material 
employed may freely project. The higher the cornice, the lower 
will the tuilding appear in proportion, and the lower it is, 
higher will seem the tuilding. Ihe fewer the number of stories 
in a building, the less necessity exists for the cornice to ap- 
pear bigh. Therefore the cornices 6f low buildings should te 

proportionally high, and of high ones lon. The following bu- 
ildings of the Italien Renaissance nay serve as guides. The 
height of the cornice without the frieze, reasured from the 
totton of the lowest to the top of the bighest member, is as 
follows, compared to the total height of the building. Villa 


oye re 


30S 

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fab tates Istot eat to IS\f toods of atasoeds saatet 
‘at Q\L .bosleg telfsow8 odt nk SI\l .ov0d.de ettes 
ue sot at €L\S suods .sosieg imtdglobael oad bas’-sate 
WV te sosisy supoef{ive? se Q\f bas ,softnoy tacdaek 8 

edt ,foodos ashaetd sdfv to eaarhbitod mradom a0 © 
@ TAI goods metveses svertidots bes sedicedaannaeins 
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@ ssatooridors to elootce todtd .overtsdors. dae: os2t7? 
a ns éved [oofoe nebee7d eat io seodd. .ee0fe709 196lo5 
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pages at treaties? te aecalsg ond at anottvoqorg 6003. ben 
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eS od? To sottostorg od! wesotn109 bas avers02 avitte 
aq sdtiE welietas sottontteaoo: ati ¢s bsatursieb 
pene sd gaidem (S80 .2ti) Isc0e eben ots: tagied 
or 30 tet of 8 om SAI gnods ct aottoe2 eso1s29K¢ To 
s of abmpogasaso9 nofdose elis eos? fics. gat. dasy 
a bustxe Segeyemote to Aoold. edt sous’ od S\tn% 0 
adres sds o100 sdi bas ,Ad3ied adi as ifew sat ovai gst as 
ie id: ‘bevizsd ste side send .ddRiSd ant, abegoree, costootorg 
tees vi bevea eh ietisies .f, .aslgtoniagsbosor: agine 
for oa ieode snote odd cottostoag rstse13 Yo saga at .$ «not 
28379 ial be sopso7a0b tepo sd¢ ,f ;2ddteeor es doam es benod 
. “. AefdQhed bas moitostorg. be 

g Rasa to benoxace, ak, stotelistas yaagzel:a IT 
> to ogtsdtifteos as oF Oiey 25 tepe goitasiss .sno 
asgaged yen #h bas ,fflew sit of tited seodd drin atisg 
i in edd Ontded: ret sa atosto1g oxotslisiae edt teat atosior3 
Zsbot Saanetest ote sioofsi sdt [Is asda ,tooxt ai as sos? 


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202 
Farnesina, 1/20; Fandolphini palace, 1/14; Strozzi palace, 1/16; 
Condi palace, 1/18. Ihe entire cornice including architrave and 
frieze amounts to about 1/21 of the total height in the Cancel- 
laria at Rome, 1/16 in the Rucellai palace, 1/8 in Villa Ferne- 
sina and the Pandolphini palace, atout 2/13 in the library of 
S. Mark at Venice, and 1/9 at Eevilacgqua palace at Verona. 

On modern buildings of the Dresden schocl, the entablature 
including frieze and erchitrave measures about 1/17 of the to- 
tal height of the tuilding, or abcut 1/30 to 1/40 omitting the 
frieze and architrave. Cther schools of architecture employ - 
tolder cornices, those of the Dresden school have an elegant 
and refined effect, without appearing too small. Cnauth obtae- 
ned good proportions in two palaces at Stuttgart in employing 
1/10 to 1/12 for the entatlature or 1/25 to 1/27 for the morn- 
ice alone. No fixed rule of normal proportions exists for hei- 
ght cf cornices, but only starting points are given at most, 
for these proportions depend on those of the entire building,. 
its stories and absolute height, as well as the point of view. 
it must be left to artistic feeling to find the correct propo- 
rtions in each case. The extreme distance possible from the 
obrever and the building is also decisive in regard to propor- 
tions and height of the cornice. Cenoa is characteristic in 
this respect with its narrow streets and tall palaces, high -- 
string courses and cornices. The projection of the cornice is. 
determined by its construction chiefly. If the projection and 
height are made equal (Fig. 388)., making h = height, the area 
of the cress section is atout 1/2 h 2 so far as it projects te- 
yond the wall face; this section corresponds to a rectangle of : 
h x 1/2 he Hence the block of stone must extend at least half | 
as far into the wall as its height, and the more the as the 
grojection exceeds the height. From this are derived the foll- 
owing ground principles. 1, material is saved by swall project- — 
ion’ 2, in case of greater projection the stone should be hol- 
lowed ag much 28 possitle; 3, the cost increases with increas- 
ed projection and height. 

If ae lerger entatlature is composed of several blocks of st- 
one, attention must be paid to an equilibrium of overhanging 
parts with those tuilt in the wall, and it may happen that it. 
projects thet the entablature projects as far behind the wall 
face as in front, wben all the trlocks are fastened together | 


ee eS eee i 


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: Quix of ,eldsiete1g ei yiote otise as to wzot aie [Len 
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feb (enorifibow to seu sat yd efdtecog es douw eeresote! 
saved beton od of at PE t07 sagertOLvow Sat newense. One 
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| peetla bas geidoisns 10% tnsibsgxe teetbese sd! 
- neonted nokisetotg: bacose 8 to aortisgar ads si soitazeo 
BrdT .(8Of .at%) weds gotesatoct azodzem t9N0L ynisroqQee 
; «( nate aftteeh qd bemtot yldeistera et sottostorg baooea 


203 

by clazps (Fig. 389), or at least enough so that the area of 
the shaded portion in Fis. 390 exceeds the other part. Fro 
the entire discussion it results that a continuation of the 
gall in form of an attic story is preferable, to bring the cen- 
tre of gravity of the cornice as near as possible to the azis 
of the wall. Further thet it is desirable to likhten the entab- 
lature as much as possible by the use of modillions, dentils 
and ornamented mouldings. Eut it is to be noted here, that the 
wedillions must not be cut from the same tlock as the geison, 
but they must be in a separate one, since the geison would be 
too heavy and the purpose of the modillions would te lost.Thus 
the mutules and their drops in the Doric style are objectiona- 
tle as being the contrary, and it would be better to treat the 

underside of the geison with sunk panels. Further the dentils 
by which cornices are made lighter and animated are useless if 
their cvrojection is slight, and therefore are best omitted in 
string courses of small projection. 

In its simplest form, a cornice now consists of three elemn- 
ents, the strongly projecting geison, the supporting lower 
rembers, and the crowning upper wemters (Fig. 391). The seison 
is hollowed on its underside to form a water drip. 

Tf as in Creek architecture the crowning member of cyza also 
forms a gutter, this must be much higher than the facia and so 
becomes a dominating motive, and'to not unnecessarily increase ' 
the weight, a steep and slightly projection is given to it (Fig. 
392). Eut the facia predominates in most cases, and the crown- \ 
ing member is test wrought on the same tlock as the geison and | 
not separately in case an actual gutter is used. In richer for- 
ms weaker members are inserted between the cyma and geison. 

Eg our wethod of. stonecutting, i.e., waking all cut stones ) 
from rectangular blocks, it is absolutely necessary to retain 
the horizontal joint a f under the geison (Fig. 393). It it is 
desired to treat the underside of the ceison with sunk panels, 
the drip should be short and tordered panels should be insert- 
ed between it and the supporting lower members (Fig. 394). 

fhe readiest expedient for enriching and strengthening the 
cornice is the insertion cf a second projection tetwueen the 
supporting lower wemters increasing them. (Pig. 394). This 
second projection is preferatly formed by dentils (Fig. 394). 


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204 

Eetween it and the geison are pleced modillions in still rich- 
er cornices, around which the upper mouldings of this course 
are broken. In the richest cornices a group of members is pla- 
ced under this row of modillions, and even another projection 
with its upper end lower members. | 

A frieze and eventually an architrave is placed below the 
cornice whenever required ty esthetic needs. ihe frieze way 
remain flat or nay be decorated (Fis. 394 a), or it can be for- 
ned of a series of vertical modillions es in a fine example 
by Vignola, which permits a still greater projection of cornice. 

All modern cornices are werely variations cf this totive, al- 
ready fixed ty the classic and Kenaissance styles; the ‘questi- 
on therefore is whetheh one will adhere more or less closely 
to Grecian, Roman or Renaissance architecture. whether he will 
adhere strictly to the columnar orders or not, or the cornice 
shall te ornamented and in what manner. 

The architreve may te made lower in facades, since it is con- 
pletely tuilt into the well, than when used over a colonnade 
or rortica, which require the stones to have a certain strength. 

§. Interruptions of Cornices. 

A peculiar conflitt arises if the eentre or end portions of 
a facade in three divisions are made higher. If the cornice of 
the lower part is carried across the entire facade, 4 main cor- 
nice will then be used as a string course, which is unseerly, 
or the higher portion must be made to project sufficiently, t 
that the cornice of the lower portionmey die against it (Fige- 
295 aj,b). It will then te test to strive to adjust this, so 
that a portion of the cornice of the lower part of the building 
may te changed to a string course for the higher portion (Fig. 
395 €). Or the string course of the higher portion is broken 
around and unites with the cornice cf the loner portion (395 qd). 


fo let the cornice of the lower part simply abut against the 
projection of the higher fart, as done in Creek architecture 


and by the advocates of that style in our era, is and remains- 
a faulty expedient of an undeveloped art. ihe architecture sh- 
ould at least be so arrenged, thet at the height of the arch- 
itreve of the lower portion a slightly projecting band extends 
around the higher part to preserve continuous lines and to 
croperly connect the parts (Fis. 39¢). 


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ehesties gtuoasn odd gris? of YIsvOTaDD Bertiszos. 
ky gattosotota wo {Lee odd aatbivib .sotu1eo. sas oF 
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aw ekdt at beyolase 918 sciat0> of gesd soxt: gotheetre 
Skid ed) bsouboty od) vos Foetts [vtr9w0g © ageonr le 
E30 .nottetbertnoo femrotat a8 antuisiaoo syexeznsti6s 
bas ,Stenkoob of sent{ Letnositod rolls ot fersten teon 
bat heyssiss ste (few od? to enoktostoz: [saitrsy node 
} gabeessgqwe 10% ateixs: noses: on ,..o%o .etetasits 
pedd seaksye gote vodtis yeu dotds .er9duea {stn 
| > otdted cove <uedt Savors navorsiad to scottos;, 
‘oven ,tosantmob esat{ Lantitsvy shen dokdn .e1n% 
it usat betes? .gtetinos sdf co tad ,envieivio istrost 
» .aldetii¢est stex yoas aradKn eooely. edd af elolod 
oo art ESRI ~eetsef{ed ob 
“re ote ,peetiiedio) 

ie ‘puilabateen bas) setnooted .2etael{s) x 
7 ae{voes TO HorMds set bobnatar asdtsiw .alish ° 
+ aed .sebie etom 10 800 20 seiteliss oven vftneu 
{fo gatifedios ys bewtot ad. yaw yods ,dtbeets Lise 
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c tlosvy for vo batigsy wedtis os .sordo dose. rave pep 
asbsove uo geet bue [fad ont to: t3okswsial san of a9 
of sebcatacied Ostetottey 10 bilo aved ved? web 
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edt to atebserev base eckgzol ,soottrog smoosi esi 


oN, AA 


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570 BOOT gaivil $ gniso sfoyof si\.ebkea ars ta aeqo 
> fo asvosouIdE Islinte eis edshasisy bas .aebia cas od 
v1 a ‘ous of Gatvil sot bsbastah ers ax007 seed ,aoitoustanco 
fs $28 ed yst .enoiv ontt bas tis deett sdt gotes ot es oa , tks 
pretense PAMAtN AN one. at ae {fn ae eeeued ot aegae 


eth 


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205 

If we follow the princirles of Creek antiquity in such cases, 
we shall only too readily employ two different scales, which 
was uBually barrpily avoided by the Renaissance style. 

3. Stories not separated by horizontal embers. 

Insteed of separating the stories ty string courses, it is 
sometimes customary to carry the masonry untroken from the base 
to the cornice, dividing the wall by projecting pilasters or 
projections, thus forming it in vertical stripes; even columns 
extending from base to cornice are employed in this manner. A 
Although a powerful effect nay be produced ty this means, the. 
arrangenent containing an internal contradittion. it is always 
most natural to allow horizontal lines to dominate, and even 
when vertical projections of the wall are arranged in form of. 

pilasters, etc., no reason exists for suppressing the horiz-. 
ontal menters, which may either stop against the vertical pro- 
jections or be broken around them. Even Cothic church architec- 
ture, which made vertical lines dominant, never suppressed hor- 
izontal divisions, but on the contrary, treated them tbe more q 
boldly in the places where they were ‘justifiable. 
4, Galleries, Ealconies, Verandahs, Eay Windows, 
Corbellings, etc. 
«. Galleries, balconies and verandahs. 

Halls, whether intended for church or secular purposes freq- 
uently have galleries on one or more sides. When they are of 
small breadth, they may te formed by cortellins out teams of 
stone, wood or iron, which support the architrave or floor, b 
tut in order to appear strong, they reauire to te sutported ty 
consoles, corbels, etc. Galleries, several of nbich may be pla- 
ced over each other, are cither vaulted or not vaulted; are op- 
en to the interior of the hall and rest on arcades or colonna- 
des. They have solid or perforated balustrades in front, and 
may be treated like a series of connected windows. These salle- 
ries tecome porticos, logsias and verandahs on the exterior of 
a building, rorticos being understood to signify a lons hall 
open at cne side, 2 logsia being a living room oren at least 
on two sides, and verandahs are similar structures of cightest 
construction. lbese rooms are intended for living in the open 
sir, so as te enjoy the fresh eir and fine vicus, mey be arr- 
anged in houses as well as in fublic buildings.If covered, the 


eae lll iil Ji 
oor 


PaREL sb ymann- fk eth beats ah butded moot ot to awktdati 
‘a eave es s0dil ss cokdourtecod A .anchatn taort ¢f 
dv exe ,fastasveor e¢ ejutasz7o gusa 2% 5a8 atio7dne 

ob aadt od (Ltn wetoRtsdd entias) eddy bos .eiissi 
.Sbsost biloe siom sds diin e@testtaos yitnsesoly 

+f ,0okti0g sdt yd Sebastre xo 
-eoigoolsed bas ewobaty esi .8: 

yeenon 8 ebtateo esoo1 ese estgooisd bus snodatweesi 
sane gifswao ec ,ellew adt to anki isdreo ed bor 
on tktset bee astiio to ellen sdt ot babbe ed seis 
eysaie ets vod!) cfs ,etowot .2usetedo to2008 
steofed dite bedetakt srs ,enottosior, gd beatstio 
ote .etisev ,saloenoe ,a2fsiuco ys batregace 

enote signte 6s yiisisaeg atysoolsd giscté10 2d? 
yee foods et eeendotd? s2ede .efdiico To esloanso ed 3! 
P beblao gated sbe ett .Savped Saotave © to déaeb sdt 22 
: ao wbucysh dale eidt Yo seendords sd. .tsdtel said 
Md gt Saibeol ‘sti ao bas .ysooksd edt to sottosios9.24d. a0 
© od vem sOfetebac etl .di a9 oF yea ota excarsy 
ot: niton ob vedt tsd¢ Sebtvesq .bald yas to alonez dave 
wap gidershtexoo soehora you tl wdsfe odd aadegn 
| ebiov @ivgegoisd) edd to tdgien yasersoernn [fs 1I .2al 
btf{oa of alderetety ot6 gorl sdaco tn to esbsatagtss 
B eeseee bas ghor work. tigworw oct sqtaoRee xO suOse 
oko? méen oo beoslg od daun ,arviste to sxbsiateaisd 
3 aatoosore tom oa ,#auotdt eaey fouaso bsed s‘biids 3 
bgfoorecs ed binode sbsitzasisd sat ta tazrad ach wane 
St a Lsr0n98 ak nabestested to sust at ease odP .Ft'F 
799 to coals betouasenoo oms-anttel{ley to One. est009 
Rivtaes qd bstevo> bas efaog slagaa otat tal aposs. to 2de 
elite wobatw fo seeds aiif eslitowg svsd yew 2ds> 
| eSdgied suae std te of 

fy yIsy 338 mate anode bosstotieg to wedbserteciai 
<i sont snort) ydkootw to atneaento dtiw aotioussann2 
vo f adaogqoe fao0de to bssogaoo asbaxtaeg{sd .boresy sense 
8d alevisdef edt san at otavet [fim bas 13394. oved 
gotdr note ussite to atqeusnr0 yd bs{{rt 9d wav 
\) »fostths. booy yt 

| leebektia to anobate ae te ed alias edt eliyobiva 
q ot bextesh ek #4. 21 .bifoa ot taow shard {fs to aff'd to 


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206 

lighting of the room behind is impeired in case it is lighted 
ty front windows. A construction as light as possible , slender 
supports and @s many openings @s convenient, are therefore des- 
iratle, and the entire character will te thus determined, which 
pleasantly contrests with the more solid facade, that is broken 
or extended by the portico, etc. 

8. Eay windows and balconies. 

Eey windews and balconies are rooms outside a house consthuc- 
ted by corbelling out the walls, as usually defined. They may 
also be added to the walls of cities and fortifications, terr- 
aces of chateaus, towers, cic. They are always occupied roors 
obtained by projections, are finished with balustrades and are 
supported ty cortels, conscles, vaults, etc. 

The crdinary balconyis generally a single stone slab suppor- 
ted by consoles or corbels, whose thickness is about the same 
as the depth of a string course, its edge being moulded like 
the latter. The thickness of this slab depends on the material, 
on the projection of the balcony, and on its loading by the ¢ 
versons who may te on it. Its underside may be decorated by s 
sunk panels of any kind, provided that they do not materially 
weaken the slab. It may project consideratly beyond the conse- 
les. If all unnecessary weight of the balcony is avoided, open 
telustredes of wrought iron are preferable te solid ones of s 
stone or masonry; the wrought iron rods anc ornaments, as in 
valustrades of stairs, must be placed so near together, that 
a child’s head cannot pass through, so not exceeding €.7 to 7.1 
ins. Ihe height of the balustrade should be scarcely less than 
3 ft. The same is true cf talustrades in general. Those of tal- 
conies and of galleries are constructed also of perforated sl- 
abs of stone let into angle posts and covered by caps. These 
cabs way have crofiles like those of window sills and should - 
te at the same height. 

Eelustrades of perforated stone slats are very pleasing in 
construction with ornaments of wrought iron. Since the Renais- 
sance veriod, balustrades composed of short supports like vases 
have been and will remain in use. The intervals between them | 
nay be filled by ornaments cf wrought ircn, mhich rroduce a ve- 
ry good effect. 

Evideytly the balustrades of tay windows of living rooms and 
of halls of all kinds must te solid. If it is desired to perf- 


Spl lp baat a Re 


. Fos 
bees pevéla ahideun fogeq: offense hod tp otstorneg 
2 din sokt>0ez09 at tootts gatecels 2 aved awobutw yaad 
e778 istinoeq vase ot sett enivto .2cad sone 
. et elferoeqes aeocly 98 seadod.tes102.20 2sfgat 
a ‘ali eiteore a9ttrd yen cedt isonet senobatn vad celyae 
mh } oots ,1sleo1ks ,eseene aso0lia eniset 
Oy ve@etens .Ac5. & 
Te dettpitt ade. edz eal at peaninidl ad - oF 
eBeiot aietid vilsyiontay tod .teoueegestie sted 
8 atin oOf .SdgfeiTe c19 yad?d .sasze2asTss réodhedt 
, Sg? .set00> Ssvtco+8 Gfin gatiatw ose .ae1s09 
$igo sd you aid? to Sas sno is petite ge yd bs t07 
eyTeoet? To sotaya 6 Satwiet.exsiz 10 eavules Ilse 
go tisds no etists odt aseolons [fat dasa has sbert 
Be toette edt sonegltai ekaidmsi-sth to cette tebeo ott 
Mofde deniess efonca oft 2s (Low as ,asaso enn at agteee 
nail Pai pe .  vesgode vileces :ifker bead 
13 | e@eRetrie> ioodtinx base déin aristd:.2 
nya 2 of OF 8S of t9076 dose ao stl.easta odd (tT 
8b biome rete om? To sebiaiebas One abas-edt .9y0i77199 °6 
io 97. agaiztea 20 .awzot Setrsyv to alonsy does yi-bads 
) a0 ,e9906 add ito osit sdf sdiltheatioahvyladte sd ees 
8 eg $e qyitesi vo ,ee9be te770 thodt-no e797e ab. fertat af 
a) ~(YOP .akt) .edasy beatflont dtinvetanrails 
ga aeef tc ston od [ftw etasuszastte sordtanaad? 
je bopison & .obatteaisd aft to tnguagastte edt ov ears 
T3>e@ svad [lin gafste.sdi to sdlarsbas bsb{eon bre 
. kte2 6 stot of es baisest oa od osls vou-kakats 502 
ihe ) (828: ht) :eafoemoo! ekil advo 
a eat(ssvy so etbedt’; 45: 
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i 


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& of agit eviR bas dose ts allen odt oft Lind sate 
dose t29be0 dots os 3uftvontteno> vi tuesagaeite agi 
19g cdf .atcl beqgete s ai shasoes tl{satt tluay ost - tect 
Sta aniboin at agrot gnisselg bas tsilo0e7 ssom0019 af7e2 
it to a0 .notvoursego> totais of bodysbs elistoeqes ots tgdz 
| agot dotdw of tadd af existe to a yateesiz tzon 
sf bue-deiste adt tT pantasqe otsmp2 w banoTs aut atdatl? 
b $18 enodd niche ntots yd bhateii4 nodt eta ager 


in = ae 


207 
rerforate: them, a solid panel must be placed behind them. The 
bay windows have a pleasing effect in connection with the ent- 
rance door, giving rise to many peculiar arrangements. The bay 
angles of corner houses are places especially fevoratle for a 
angle bay windows. Hence they may differ greatly in form of p 
plan, be oblons, square, circular, etc. 
5. Stairs. 

We do not Bave to consider the construction of stairs and t 
their arrangement, but principally their forms. Accordingly 
in their arrangezent, they are straight, i.e. with a straight 
course, and winding with a curved course. The steps may be surp- 
ported by a string at one and or this may be omitted, or by 
swall columns or piers forming a systex of tracery. The talus- 
trade and hand reil encloses the stairs on their open side; t 
the under sides of the landings influence the effect of the 
design in many cases, as well as the newels against which the 
hand rail usually siops. 

“%. Stairs with and without carriages. 

Tf the steps lie on each other so as to be supported without 
a carriage, the ends and undersides of the sters may be decor- 
ated ty sunk panels of varied forms. If strings are used, these 
may be simply inclined like the rise of the steps, or they may 
te formed in sters on their upper edses, or lastly steps may 
alternate with inclined parts. (Pig. 397). 

These three arrangements will te more or less suitatle accor- 
Ging to the arrangement of the balustrade. A moulded upper edge 
and moulded underside of the string will heave a pleasing effect. © 
The string may also be so treated as te form a series of supp- 
orts like consoles (Fig. 398). x 

B. Steirs on vaults. 

Stairs are vaulted underneath in meny cases. The most diff- 
erent kinds of vaults may thus te used. Stairs whose sters 
are built into the walls at each end give rise to a very pleas- 
ing arrangement ty constructing an arch under each ster, so t 
that the vault itself ascends in a stepped lorm. The same prin- | 
ciple produces peculiar and pleasing forms in winding stairs, 
that ere especially adarted to trick construction. Cne of the 
most pleasing Kinds of stairs is that in which four straight - 
flights run around a square opening; If the stairs and land- 
ings are then supported ty groin vaults, these are alternately 


ee (oe) sagatttes to eatot Suktpidebes gatondoayz: ioeutlaat 
} «garb ‘edt 10t esvitom Potttussd: teosiodr to and 
sidow doved> Levstbes mtoesisovet.talgottaay « vat 
afoo: {Lene vi betr0qque ote B7stalods sisdu dads at 
bet: ‘teow ot besl ede .etsoe7s: ‘Otak Bemansdm sis see 
: erates geodt yLletooqas ,eztste [feve sot efissiue 
Pp senutoes tons gomwds ai to aeviseuedt anoor ody okas 
TAF hey Winn. ~petkeds: to asbeywtegie® .¥ 
i's gaote to sbsi YI .goik to 10 snot. to. sre sesdt 
Mets ee enuofoo [feta dtsodt ,atetenisd yi dstsogqea ef 
ter nodgte ,boyharte exe wisle beterotisg 40 .aetis 
gitotata ak yisoets to. Heatol us astaseenio ssat 
seloottisy ote aozt sdscotw Yo esbeiten{s? .earstieg 
p sett to 90 \eved (beteso0eb Leoitiev to deakenoo dokie 
fgeso Gaeod? .deeu od osfs yer Sen0nd bre work tasd 
; whee to fanenos no etstaulad t0t boyolawe of woblee 
Wott Tdgnotn mo enote ted ,avianszrs o8' sb s9a077) bas 
rool ods wot eldetinaytev ai onts teed .berastard 
fo 3 0&8 wo debts so betaisy ed of setiagss tod edaid 
if eebertecied meboow yliasbivd .1oloo iseass{oas 
eqee to besoqueo od yee, hee brtstainsboow tot boas 
ebeedgvoOTe bass sodso sit ad .aentvaso Soom Lenroe: 44, x0 
Plage © © sertete weboow tot afdstina oats ove astustacled 
ee | eerisse to wafeo slomd . diy 
a” — best edt yacbsttegled sat sods cesdh. taarsgh 
agai odd sot yiinstrogyo brotts. yodt Sos .sakigzso 
\ efis7 sdd eved ot asst oJ cxzewls Tega o789) tase 
puny -eizeqotg bas yan Isieteo 6 nk afowan edt: atot 
10 jebt9wolt to sesvis ,otwtrit esd s avirsse: of bation 
Sit sot 2218 Yo teoo s ankdroqgee enor SqogtT {stare 
. B89 ee{uottzs7 ett dtia sonsbtooos xt bobastt (ore enol 
era bas ,desmekse1Ts Tieds ditw .baen ys ved) Soidy 
a ssp: avewie vod? .bodowstewo> sis yodd dokda to {sitet 
—.. avo gaknnozs Si seseo yoom ot bus .969 8 bes dtailg 
} Talley itin ostvowred Sivedai gel Sas ivatly edt to entot 
een 10 USa pate) nea ashe, ites dasa dae BBaITIGS SAT 
09d 99mg09 
ie | v2 mt satlbicbeed 9 
-eyswpiela CPE: ® otuoee OF aedet 2d .evente taun ers? 
i tefavoaee ton ef ebkersbay eid ees. ak -Osfe gatbasl eat 


' uy 


208 
inclined, producing very varied forms of ceilings. 

Cne of the most beautiful motives for the treatment of stairs 
was a particuler favorite in wediaval church architecture, and 
is that where the sters are supported by small columns. If th- 
ese are changed into tracery, they lead to most varied forms, 
Suitatle for small stairs, especielly those used in houses wi- 
thin the rooms themselves or in church architecture. 

y. Ea@lustrades of Stairs. 

These ere of stone or of iron. If made of stone the band rail 
is supported by balusters, thoubh stall columns are also favo- 
rites. Or perforated slabs are arranged, either decorated by 
free ornaments or formed of tracery in strictly seometrical p. 
vatterns. Ealustrades of wrought iron are particularly suitable, 
which consist of vertical decorated bars or of free scroll work. 
Cast iron and bronze tay alse te used, though cast iron will 
seldom te employed for balusters on account cf its brittleness 
and tronze is so expensive, that stone or wrought iron will te 
preferred. Cast zinc is very suitable for the interiors of buil- 
dings but requires to be painted or gilded on account of its 
untleasant color. Evidently wooden talustrades would only te - 
used for wooden stairs end may be composed of separate pieces, 
or te actuel wooed carvings. Cn the other hand, wrousht iren 
telustrades are also suitatle for wooden stairs. 

6. Angle nelew of Stairs. 

Against these abut the talustrades, the hand rails ane the 
carriage, and they afford opportunity for the most varied treat- 
ment. Care must always be taken te have the parts just named 
‘join the newels in a natural way and properly. The newels are 
suited to receive a gas fixture, a vase of flowers, an ornam- 
ental figure, or one supporting e coat of arms, etc. Their f 
forms are treatéd in eccordance with the particular case for 
wbich they are used, with their arransement, and with the me-. 
terial of which they are constructed. They always require a p 
clinth and a cat, and in many cases a crowning ornament; the 
forms of the plinth and lap should harmonize with those of t 
the carriage and hand rail, with which they may or may not te 
connected. 

€. Landings. 

Care must always be taken to secure a fleasing treatment of 

the landing slab, in case the underside is not concealed by v 


as ia ey 
14 rn “4 sa A i r a8 if a / s 
Yt 4 vate k 2 : 7 i ” hs 
+, ee eee : 
ee ry ie : F "> a i 


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yt coiean 308 ot actnthae ome eloaeq dawe wolled? .etioar 
aii ine sd you yout doldw of dtqdb momtxew. sid ;seler aio 
: Sit mo bas ,defa ont to deve 1s8fo bas seomiotds: od we 
is to erodens eetel tl .bees ef #£ Hotdw civessdiaalys 
d2 ,2footos af ae ,areod aretteo ts agatblics aivurrede 
sibew OF BHoTSRaSh smoosd yom tr eodte. .2iisdsdissnes 
ai rebteaoo yllotstso evswls teow seo svoteredt 
| eid? bee . 49 q905 sd yen aleaey oft radteir 
ae p< i.:'x6 | . s89baosisd tov enst 
eh | a eee , eRarese Gatbert .5 | 
) eas attests ‘gatoate 0 eyete sdt to. esbrershas oat 
t 320 bsereth 928 yodt to .nottose rsloenetoaa to tol 
dteensd Setoustenoo art tivsy s 10: .9ostaae Lebdrosil 
am /datr east bsqata sabow bomi0t o72 aneo tert sis 
Uedt at seleser dave yi botaxosed esostiue détu re eagbe 
Wdade yd hetaensnrs od you vosttvs Lebiosifed eda ease 
fie 64 Sogetetes détw Sogaet1s etosmsa10 to ekokbluon 
Nee esttotrsy ont odt to notdertduoo s vftesl 20° ,satl 
, Sat ,etiste gatbatw vsssnsd tlusv a: to ves0 ol: .esyod 
nib ‘ge od yeu to rntnewtrequos Ietbs1 stubepivrs 
ptetorsy fnowsoaezts sesl sdf .tlasv Isbicsifsd 25 
sibs bie of? d¢iw sottourtedco® ioixd ak sosnsvesrs Yo 
fase dotad sdf ofisetizovet sslooityes esse dotdw ,aenod 
2 ib el £06 ebas§fO8 \to ova 
oda tt ine ai atiste. anitbotn s to’ Lease sit: 31 
gs) to ed tagx dozom ,€@2e) 019) paiiinos Lig2.btss 
ae’ Sper aliey stotemeds ei ti ons ,bogesta. gitaag od2o7 
tasD 2 ted ,fowen on aii ozedt t1.cwaiied ant adsey 
ee as vd-beeolons od qiisisas: Ofcods sidd gatos 
aw ei dotde bas .batarooed so bobloon’ ,xgkite Lao 
Taian tte geutefl al .gystva.edt to ebhas odd a5 Bifoe 
eoigacss suit yr. eenmolos.Sisas yd betsoggsa.ed bfbode 
: wto oltess edt Yo resot siete odd of Ongar s2s.Asids 
‘cians tas 6d? te etista zatbate ([coleoeva edd ar bas 
| \ » spoeelh ak. guadee1t? te savod 
Paar dae sali oluode evbeteozatbain basta y7zoV 
yd betebtl od qew dotin) fewea 8 to bestent’ etsevtse 
; hese Qioktst0c6b Tot beatetdo et yttavtiogqo xa fact se 


oo welinre bas ets.e7s | aia ad siabichdul petnete te 
iy el | | | : 


whet 


7 1 
Aaa! ve 
7 ere 


si panie 


209 
vaults. Shallow sunk panels are suitatle to not weaken the lan- 
ding slab; the maximur depth to which they may be sunk depends 
on the thickness and clear sran of the slah, and on the parti- 
culer case in which it is used. If large numbers of men use the 
stairs in tuildings et certain hours, as in schools, theatres, 
concert hells, etc., it may tecome dangerous to weaken the slabs. 
Therefore one rust alweys carefully consider in sp&écial cases, 
whether the ranels may be deep or shallow, and this is also t 
true cf balconies. 
©. Winding Stairs. 

The undersides of the sters or windins steirs are either 
left of rectansular section, or they ere dressed off to a he- 
liccidal surface, or a vault is constructed teneath them. In . 
the first case ere formed wedse shaped prisms, with roulded 
edges or with surfaces decorated ty sunk panels. In the second 
case the helicoidal surface may be ornamented by sunk panels, 
mouldings or ornaments arranged with reference to a helical 
line, or lastly a combinetion of the two varieties may be emp- 
loyed. In case of a vault beneath winding stairs, it way te 
divided in radial compartments; or may te an ascending annul- 
ar helicoidal vault. The last arrangement permist pretty modes 
of treatment in brick construction with the aid of ornatental 
tonds, which were particular favorites in the brick architect- 
ure of Holland. 

If the newel of a winding stairs is solid, it should have a 
hand rail mouldings (Fig. 399), which must te of such form as 
to te easily gresped, and it is therefore usually a round bet- 
ween tac hollows. If there is no newel, tut a central well op- 
ening, this should generally be enclosed. by an ascending heli- 
cal string, roulded or decorated, and which is wrought in the 
solid cn the ends of the sters. In larger winding stairs, this 
should te supported ty small columns, very fine examples of 
abich are found in the steir tower cf the cestle of Heissen, 
and in the graceful winding steirs of the so-called Woman’s 
Bouse at Strasture in Alsace. 

Very grand winding stairs should have a stairway separate for — 
servants instead of a newel, abich may be lishted ty windons, 
so that an opportunity is obteined for decorations the walls 
of winding stairs by niches, tracery and similar motives. 


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x 


210 
6. Towers. 

lowers are either intended for ssairs, for observation, or 
for bells. In all these cases they have an upper story essen- 
tially different from the lower stories; the upper lending of 
a stair tower is lighted by a window, as well as the entrance 
to the attic story, or to any other room. Towers for observat- 
ion or of fortifications serve for temporery or permanent occu- 
pation. Fell towers contain a room fer the bells. Church towers 
are eitber detached, ajoining, placed over the crossing, or are 
little toners on gables. The latter are also used in buildings 
that require signal tells, like hospitals, barracks etc. 

x. Flans of Towers. 

As for the plans of towers, they ere either free on three si- 
des and then projecting beyond the face of the building, or 
they are bhilt in end are merely free on two sides or tut one; 
the sonare plan is preferable. Towers way further be circular 
or polygonal, with three, four, five siz or eight sides. The — 
forn of plan is decided ty the purrose of the tower, and by 
the place at which it is connected to the tuilding. Wholly de- 
tacked towers are seldom placed near a buildings excert when in- 
dependent, like observation towers; but they may be arranged 
to be partially free, as they may be connected with the lower 
story of a tuilding by an arch, above which they ere separate. 

Stair towers should always te attached at one side or stand 
in the angle of a tuilding. They should generally be treated 
clainly, being supordinete parts of the tuilding, should have 
small windows, and only their uprer stories should be richly 
treated and have large windows. If they play a more important 
cart, their openings should be wore numerous, and they should 
be lighted by larger windows. In many cases @ gallery supported 
by cortelling cr other suprerts extends sround them at the he- 
ight of one or more len@ings. The string courses should be st- 
epped correspondins to the stair inside, or they should be ar- 
ranged horizontally and placed at the same heights as the sto- 
ries end the window projections. Cne or the other arrangement 
is preferabte according to the particular case. 

8. Towers for Otservation. 

Such may be entirely free or may be attached, partly contain- 

ing stairs, the uppermost part being furnished with sallery, 


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- balconies and similar expedtents for facilitatins observation. 
Church towers are frequently also for observation, especially 
when they serve eas stations for fire watchmen. They then have 
a special story fitted as a dwelling for the watchman, where 
the watch is kept during the night. Such a story produces a 
special effect on the entire tower. 

y. Eell Towers. 

These are essential requisites for churches. Their most inmp- 
ortant portion is a room for the bells, which must have as lae-. 
rse or aS many openings as possible, so that the sound of the 
tells may be heard at a great distance. Their character is al- 
so determined by their purroses. The towers of churches are 
usually intended for ovite different purposes. For exemple, a 
tower way contain a vestibule in the ground story, ani organ 
gallersy in the second, a room for the clock-in the third, a . 
roow for tells in the fourth (tells and clock must never be «in 
the same tower), and one for watchmen in the fifth. This would 
require a tower in five stories with different heights and dif- 
ferently treated. In contrast to the open story for belis, the 
other stori¢cs are to be as nearly closed as possible, unneces- 
sary openings being avoided. 

For churches with nave and transepts, the crossing affords 
orpertunity for a lerge tower, that may be a bell tower, may 
light the crossing, or te for observation only. In these cas-- 
es it may have as tany and as large ovenings as possitle. Its: 
form of plan Bepends on its purpose in the entire design of 
the church, and what esthetic and material parts it rlays. 

Toman halls should have a tower in many cases, whose lower r- 
roome may contain archives and an open balcony, etc, nbile in 
its uprer part map be a clock and tell for the hours, and a 
roow for a fire watchman. The tower story of the tower is often 
at the sane time the city jail. Ihe forn of the tower is varied 
according to circumstances, tut being for secular purposes, all 
ectlesigsticeal character must always be avoided. The same is 
true of toners for otservation, those of prisons, city gates, | 
bridges, chateaus and fortresses. A fortress character is more 
suitatle for these with decorations by cattlements, bays, etc., 
to produce a picturesque effect. 

§. Roofs of Towers. 
fhe most necessary factor in the treatment of the tower is 


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the roof; toowers may have wocden roofs, stone spires, or iron 
roofs; they way terminate?@with domical, pyramidal or conical 
forms. A crowning form may te rroduced ty contining these forms. 

The treatment of the roofs of towers is one of the most fruit- 
ful and welcome proetlems for the architect in all cases. The 
elements availatle for the purpose are:- 1, open galleries with 
columns; the so-called dwarf galleries; 2, dormer windows; 3, 
forms of gebles; 4, ctlacing masses at the angles; 5, several 
galleries atove each other; €, the roof itself, whether it be. 
a dome, a hip or a conical roof; 7, corbelling out bay windows; 
balconies and galleries with talustrades; &, sargoyles, finials 
of all Binds, neathercocks, crosses, and other ornaments for 
the apexes of towers. Ihe wost varied treatrent results from - 
the combination of these elements. - 

C. ROCES. 

Roofs are generally of decided importance in the external | 
effect of buildings and structures, since they saterially aid. 
in forming the visible outlines. Iberefore sound artistic feel- | 
ing led the Creeks, no less than the mediseval masters, to lay | 
the greatest stress on the treatment of the roof. Less attent- | 
ion was paid by Renaissance masters to the forms of roofs, with | 
the exception of the dowed roofs of churches, and thus in our 
tine this tendency nf the Renaissance is aimed at by many arch- . 


itects, te allow the roof to have the least possitle pert in 
the effect of the building, by concealing it behind an attic, 
or by waking it so flat, that it cannot be seen. here is wis- 
sed a rational develocment of the rocf less in Italy; where 
nood is net abundant there and snow is hardly seen, flat reofs 
are the only appropriate wey, and are actually necessary for 
sake of economy. It is otherwise in our North, rich in both 
wood and snow. The entire northern nature requires the perpen- 
dicular lines of our tuildings to te emphasized tp the roofs; 
here rich in forests, the cities would seem to have been burn- 
ed, if the buildings did not have their powerfully effective 
roofs, with all their accessories of dormers, chimneys, etc. . 
Therefore care must be taken, that the roofs are artistically 
treated to enhance the entire architecture, not to disturb it. 
It should not appear as if the architect could not design any-. 
thing atove the main cornice. Magnificent buildings tike the 
former court theatre in Dresden, require something more than a 


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Ps ee 


213 

formless and colossal roof with lightnins rods. Among its ani- 
mated surroundings with the outlines of the court church and 

of the palace with its tower, the beavy mass cf the former the- 
atre appeared very badly. Among the many noble buildings, which 
cccupy the Bing street in Vienna, the Town Ball with its well 
developed roofs arpears fer more advantageously than the new 
Museums, thet look as if they had been turned. .¢ - 

We shall now treat in detail the followins. 


1. Eatter of walls. 2. Forms of roofs. 

3. Roof covering. 4, Lormer windows. 

5. Ridge towers. ; 6. Chimneys. 

7. Cecorations of roofs. 8. Cables and pediments. 


1. Batter of walls. | 

Enclosing walls are properly tattered, that rein water may 
fion off on that side where it would tetleast injurious, that 
would usually te the exterior toward the street, where means 
of removing the water .re usually provided. In this case it 
is proper toe add a drip to the battering side of the wall. fhe 
same is true for battlements. 

If it is required to prevent all prersons from passing over 
the well, a cresting or iron lattice will be suitable, and may 
be made of very pleasing form. It will also sometimes be neces- 
sary to give the top of the wall e richer form, so as to make 
sevarate parts of different heights, and to animate the weil 
by means of windows, vases of flowers, as well as tn iron lat- 
tices and similar expedients. 

2. Forms of rocfs. 

The principal forms of roofs are the shed roof, hip roof, 
gable roof, and the pyrawidal hir roof. Composite forms map 
be used as required. Thus a gable roof may be hipped at both 
ends, or a gable or hip rocf way -join another gable or hir 
roof, a favorite for the roofs of towers. The inclination of 
roofs will freauently vary to rroduce better effects, for eaxr- 
cle, so that the ends of a hir roof may te steeper than its 
sides. 7 

At the cresent time it often becomes necessary to employ the 
mansard roofl and for the angle pavilions of public buildings, 
the curved mansard. These forms of roofs are entirely approprio- 
ate where resulting from needs.in the sare way for sake of ec- 
onony, it way frequently become necessary to lessen the height 


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og ra 


214 
of the roof ty placing a deck above a straisht roof. 

On esthetic grounds, roofs composed of curved surfaces sho- 
uld also be employed, as for pavilions and conservatories. 

In all cases the proportions and forms of roofs are to be 
chosen to add to the effect of the building. If a space for 
passage ‘is arranged above the main cornice with balustrades, 
these should never exceed 3.28 to 3.61 ft. in height’ high 
balustrades make the building appear low and low ones high. 

The balustrades can scarcely be lower than 3 ft., since th- 

fir purpose would not then be fulfilled. If these balustrad- 

es ere arranged in connection with fedestals supporting stat- 

ues, these must te designed to produce a suitable sky line. 
3. Reof Covering. 

Care must be taken that the roof covering not only fulfils 
its purpose, tut also hes a pleasing effect. Even thatched 
roofs of straw may be made pleasing by the way in which the 
tundles of straw are fastened. The roof coverings of rural 
tuildings generally has a picturesque effect from accidental 
circumstances of e11 kénds; sometimes composed of stone slabs 
of irregular form, as in places where plates of rorphyry or 
of Jura limestone are used; sometimes of shingles held down 
ty stones. Woss and all kinds of plants which grow on roofs 
frequently appear very picturesque, although this sronth is n 
not teneficial to the woodwork of the roof. Fy cutting the 
lower ends of shingles are formen many kinds of patterns on 
shingle roofs, but care is necessary thet the shinsles te made 
of such forms, that water may be kert as far from the ‘joints 
as possitle. 

Tile roofs take different forms according to the mode of lay- 
ing, single, double or crewn, also when the vertical ‘joints 
are continuous or alternate, whether the tiles are set in tond, 
as in the last cese. The forms ofstile roofs further depend on 
the form of the lower ends of the tiles, as well as whether a 
any tiles of special patterns are used. 

The ridge and eaves of the roof always require special prec- 
autions to prevent entrance of rain water, and to properly cer- 
ry it off. These places elso demand ornamentation for any cov- 
ering of the roof. Hence borders of differently colored tiles 
should te arranged along the uprer and lower edges of tile roofs 
in patterns with ridge tiles of special shapes, or Suitable 


¥ Ulli aa J aa 
’ > a, Say) . ah " 
» ; 4 Bay 


‘botses piety 918 Sent ,300s Gd to Kors ods fe elstsit 

i tia {G2 (ose te @2L og ~eotaotoe?).entot anisne 

& 3: ‘aupastatety sees edt .eteos szsle to 9ae0 at « 
ba bodies wuetaY’ Setkonon Gidea? 4¥ 200 ‘edt yd beak 
\ 


978 eexot Ietoeve of tno setsle to ss0 ode “2 
be pted 9d todtset ver dotiw ,saretias bsissy teen 
eé3 anole esb103 seroLon tmenetti6 to eetcle getyols 
309006 eyewis 916 eremt0 Snvots ebced bas eevas oos 
wt stele to seg6t1 ed? .esnetaae toot of bative viaustiy 
g to egcitesr> bos .[etew déiw berevo> yisaaor17 s208 
‘Outs Sas bast tae9 to 10 .dtoK betstusd to ,setsly 
%o elstutt es {few as (xoyoTZ evsefs ers . nove 
Bx: eanobarh temt0d —® 
Ia oat Gh dogueits ef yrore to datd 9 rocs>-enem'al 
moogwsl eS boddyhl xk dokdw .etoor orsense at effsto 
sbeteext vilstasasazs bas yldoit ytov od wae oasa? 
t getstes(fy usented swartidore as to ‘teteroo vila 
‘9d aso Send eff Ons ,gaectdey Oos siuteldedns oe 
| Ob .BfT 28 4D .d .e@ COR Leff) ebte dose sa astolov 
oat emvohats 7, asin Sog0072 sehheigtib aedt sd .yem yod? 
et po a3 «yx0va 7S 
yi hatckuoed nesitenos, 278 i se0706 .s3i¢J 


med? vod. -sanotsiee # sk a9dn 9n5To s yd atdkien Raivetod 
mek odis> sdf dofldw at toot oetiosto12 vigacrte = ovsa 
qd betsa9seb ore Saedl. .et20% yd Poeols era. xe 
ee gcivdRel tot evise yllaveu awodntn sayted .ebred: 
due 10 somedrogst! edt of gaborooss (ottie ws geist 
la beterooeb od yam yous ,wsdt vd beysly saatpsedh to 
© toor efday asbooW .aisig stel 19 etoot elds Ist 
@onstioyxi eatzy to atoekhbsyxe sviisiso86 astto sis ste 
MP. Yotnorest oteti{tovt of aedtegot bar2zqc0mred yen ysah 
oT Benod to anobotw teste} «dow ‘eratsle rt metisost seg 
! al optoince ,xelsotto ad eouttauce yar exutdlind otideg 
Pepeyot serevibh teom ont to 2d yam yiisi9csy wm ,feortrtt fe 
apes? .2aides1> to wrot once bas. evertivoms ge, avsd-bivode 
“doom bbe ever{s avobetw toot bas tem109 .omty taeda to sbsn 
eno sto fostts svitasaos> saz 
ah ea7eanrdd gi 

re Niece ono mink; leentesthions beqoleved yifpt 8 xf 

-9gas77e of bo& .ovot astesefz to ayooutd> sit edew 09 


215 
finials at the arex of the rocf, that are to be treated as free 
ending forms. (fectonics, p. 195 et seq). 

In case of slate roofs, the most picturesaue effect is obta- 

ined ty the use 6f the cld so-called Cermen method of laying. 
Ey the use of slates cut to special forms are produced the 
most varied patterns, which may further be heightened by en- 
Eloying slates of different colors. Forders along the ridge 
and eaves and tands around dormers are always decorations pec- 
uliarly suited to rocf surfeces. The ridges of slate roofs are 
most properly covered with metal, and crestings of perforated 
cvlates, of hammered work, or of cast lead and zinc or wrought 
iren, are always proper, as well as finials of these metals. 

4. Dormer Windons. 

In many cases a kind cf story is arranged gn the roof, espe- 
cially in mansard roofs, which is lighted ty large windows. 
These may be very richly and ornamentally treated. They sener- 
ally consist of an architrave between pilasters, which support 
an entaklature end pediment, and its base can be extended by | 
volutes at each side (Fis. 400 a, b, c, a; Fig. 401, a, b, c). 
They may te then properly sroured with the windows of the upp- 
er story. 

Lerge dormer windows are sometimes required ty the need of 
hoisting weights by a crane when in a warehouse. They then 
have a strongly projecting roof in which the carne is fixed, 
and ere closed by doors. These are decorated by wrought iren 
bands. Cormer windows usually serve for lighting and ventila- 
tins an attic; according to the importence or subordination 
of the part played by thea, they may be decorated by ornamen- 
tal gable roofs or left plain. Wooden gatle roof cf church tow- 
ers are often decorative exredients of prime importance, and 
they mey be connected together to facilitate fastening-the ro- 
res require in slaters’ work. Dormer windows of houses and of 
cublic tuildings way sometimes be circular, semicircular or 
ellirtical, or generally way te of the most diverse forms. They 
should have an architrave and some form of crestins, frequently 
nade of sheet zinc. Eorner and roof windows always add much to | 
the decorative effect of a tuilding. 

5. Chimneys. 

In 2 fully developed architectural style, one must not forget 

to wake the chimneys of pleasing form, and to arrange them so 


‘Son vow sithiind wae 0 @oette séi ¢edd oa 
f 30h are! qbedt te e700 difw esaed aved aoat foods 
) agente qao eid? Yo atot edf sadoue io saneds 
“eats oF, gage et. tL «tottous? am0> to shor Idtosza 
, Kewevse ontince of as {fen as. gaia bssetad o aon 
it istex teode fo Toot @ dite elodw oft Antraved . 70078 

idea [fsue yd betstooeb oF yea Toor sin} .qher tao 


wiry 


; hd 


e€n07> & To ag0% .8dd 
sa uehoed to encits2o0s3 2). 
et satesete edt ,atov0T to eaorte10056 ad7 Ne 
at tdgu0u8 af betaoers 9d yer Si Ooe .datsStadoo vi 
yifetense ef TF bes .A97qJOO seeks Ootenyen 10 oaks 
Se eistnti.edd sede poor sdv to 926i7 aes ao AutiReTD 5 
exe to eqjede 943 ai ,alsktetes couse o47 to eatot gatas 
Beso1 .ekvootediaen eI betsr029 . eves! O98 atswoit 
7 to aglguc edd Batineasoto .amiot do artoa Lis oae 
gem aslzkooiag [erexeg wed .219K07 o04 gileroszas 
mobsert sasteets oct gonts ,sieiatt Ouse agate 
‘gefesolq faor su? eoudors god? .tasatsoiF isd? ws 
~bos ,babkby yidisa ydosli doteisy, ¢ii1sa.18 eaus 
tesutces fetoitored geo ont o10tte somszssqae oy 

| | speostave toot edt to rvetoatedo evi 

| 4+ 004983. 10 TugakbeT, .f 

6 bas ,gtoot sidsz to eeoctios Sao ad4¢.na0t, sod? 
-botetq09b Seated aoit,,aelmnet sunttae ar ee pegoto 
B sazte8 s0sto To. asuatTid to suoSadw 42 SebqeTs TO ~wez 
 beeolo od yeu vod? toot act to sortetor sas tazel 
® et natolicd edt to. 9bfe gaol ouo dsav oF ,yeetisis 
4 nl .eodotudo supesasmad swore of ee tadto aa% arin 
T S10u To as0 enteareds sliqevos1t 4038 .9¢) .avostaz 
as of dbatetooeb eeatiencs e109 e294) {ends te asd geat 
yo. skodl eeobtotes isieves: aL b2b5ivso ats Dns tenner tas 
pe egole couse odd diin wogtf bastiort owt et tq seteagc 
ao 2 :etconclszed e8 steegge of O57797a S18 Sasdd to , Toor 
Saeed acd to selisd beters0sb gldots od? bavited oaen r9tta! 
Pile to eottopesons, ,etasaento to bie sdt- ed .sonseataqsi 
3 903 sdew of ef aottetoneb to 260m fexgteq gacu ogi 
iivoe tue eakgetorss qd toentzory Jeqmeatoe> ody bas 
\dmeteg7e ed? meddyied abss 943 gaibsel to asdon ifs 
) eiasvoro8 edd ae eit pareesioe giisey so5loa djvatsls 


' Oe a yilign? 

, '. (MTR 
We ati 
a; } 
owe 
ea 


ea iA Oy, 
jude 


216 

so that the effect of the tuilding may not be injured. They 

should then have bases with cars at their tops for the dis- 

charge of smoke. Ihe form of this carp always depends on its 

special mode of construction. It is proper to give the chin- 
ney a twisted shap es well as te combine several flues in a 

group, covering the whole with a roof of sheet metal to keep 
out rain. This roof may te decorated by small gables or have 
the forn of a crown. 

€. Lecorations of Roofs. 

Among the decorations of roofs, the cresting is here special- 
ly considered, and it may be executed in wrought iron, cast 2 
zinc or hammered sheet copper, and it is Benerally arransed as 
a cresting on the ridge of the roof; then the finials ere free 
endings forms of the same materials, in the shape of sprays of 
flowers and leaves, decorated ty weathercecks, crosses, @nimals 
and all sorts of forms, ornamenting the angles of roofs and 
especially the towers. Few general princirles may te given for 
crestings end finials, since the greatest freedom is admissitle 
in their treatment. Ibey produce the most pleasins effect if 
they are vartly cainted black, partly gilded, and by their ope 
en sppearance afford the most teneficial cantrast to the mass- 
‘ive character of the roof surfaces. 

7. Fediment or Gable. 

These form the end surfaces of sable reofs, and ere either 
closed as in antique temples, then being decorated by sculptu- 
res or opended by windows of circular or other forms, which 
light the interior of the roof; they may be closed by an open 
stairway, so that one lons side of the building is connected 
with the other as in some Romanesque churches. In houses and 
calaces, the attic frequentls contains one or more rooms and 
then has windows; these ere sometines decorated in the rich- 
est manner and ere divided in several stories. Their outlines 
consist of the two inclined lines with the same slope as the 
roof, or these are stepped to appear as battlements; from the 
latter were derived the richly decorated gatles of the Cerman 
Renaissance, by tbe aid of ornamenta, accessories of all kinds. 

The rost natural mode of decoration is to make the two ends 
and the centre most prominent by acroterias and sculptures; 

211 nodes of loading the ends heighten the epparent stability, 
although selder really increasing it, and the acroteria at the 


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Cis - 
aspegh deti ysov of been’ offedtes as estitetisa satass 
PB Hornets avrot s0bbas sett egedt .esdo1cdo to S6ond 
bas gotegtt .efetart .eeeeors: liso stazted stea0 
“. nis berevos ei often odf sbeyolyno od neds eee aeet 
me edtt ,h9a89 emoe ni etedooto yd betmotenis of esa’ seat 
Ger bas seat ofnt Ssvloset of yew to ,afyie sidtod sdf to 
Poettitent o28 dtoF .ooneeetsned ueet99 ond ni es evtot 
Stodd .sooetesrgs Hakttragih bas Feentses to egatolted 
tnt seodd tot bao0se St stots .eeanod ers70 eho 
.Basetsdo It Sopdet tinyen TeTsets Io satoarsad a 
-o39 Bsteq5' srnoe 

eMOIPOCATSHOD BHOTS .8 ‘ 

goteesoigcs gitrow Sas [stneutnen feon sdt ak erat? © 
Svteasqco te0u edt ak sert snse edits bee . stats 
Tdors to tnewyolevet {[eetroteti sury sd? .aottsarte 
On woiad al seodd yuolvoustecos onota ok to SetrTe5 
pPasiaerot ads of efekreted wedto mk tt Sotextroryys ef 
Beebat st 3I .eottowrtanos endte ot gaitetes yheorts 29 
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hier ob edt es ifow 26 ,noktoertadoo snote ek bestes99 
et enota to someserest sd? .ancitfosody ottadtes to 
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dahon snota to etaswefe og? .seetta satevarstt tebss 
mes .2isle ,steoy ,srorfe'to essed otdsticoot events o78 
5 85 feastosdidoze [fA .atlnay bas esdors to atrosavoy Hae 
ee ree 989d? of sousasteTt dfin boanemis ef nortour 
ek .aettou to eee edt vi Asonegore ot sevte ef edoanrtd +e 
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Set gI .curtdi{isos sfistd to ateste s af ere stutogite 
ie oat teds ,soltoutténoa sactea ta Siteinteioaisdo 
“Ratko: 5 ,etteil aistiso aidtin aisno1 eysuls aistostte ett 
ad ‘Bas ,e11600 aad of sudta to etoysl sdt te easafords odd a0 
Wy) Bas eeotnt0> sot oldtesoy at soitseio1z sfistebtesos soer 
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217 

centre satisfies an esthetic need. In very high gables, as in 
those of churches, these free ending forms reouire a proporti- 
onate height; sgatle crosses, finials, fisures and similar rot- 
ives may then te employed. The gakle is covered ty a cornice, 
that may de ornamented. by crockets in some cases, like those 
of the Cothic style, or may te resclved into free and fanciful 
forms as in the Cernan Renaissance. Eoth are justifiatle for 
buildings of earnest and dignified appearance, churches, muse- 
ums, opera houses, etc.; the second for those intended to have 
a character of greater magnificence, for chateaus, theatres, 
comic operas etc. 

A. STCNE CONSTRUCTION. 

This is the rost monumental and worthy expression of archit—- 
ecture, end at the same time is the most expensive mode of con- 
struction. The true historical develeprent of architecture was 
carried out in stone construction; those in brick and wood on- 
ly approximated xk in other materials, to the forms-and rotiv— 
es dlready existing in stone construction. It is indeed true 
that in different places, stone construction was first develor- 
ed fron wood construction, borrowing from thence a part of its 
forms, like those of the entatlature, columns and gable roof; 
tut the further development of these and other elements first 
eccurred in stone construction, as well as the determination 
of esthetic prorortions. The resistance of stone to crushing 
and transverse treeking rrescrited the lizits within which 
stonework could be erployed; resistance to tension alzost ne- 
ver comes in consideration, cr only as it may occur in 2 bear 
under trapsverse stress. The elements cf stone construction 
are always monolithic bears of stone, vosts, slats, ashlars 
and voussoirs of arches and vaults. All architectural const- 
ruction is arranged with reference to these. Although a sreat— 
er firmness is given to stonework by the use of mortar, it 
must itself be so arranged, that the different parts of the 
structure are in a state of statle equilibrium. It is always | 
characteristic of stone construction, that the elements of 
its structure always remain within certain limits, depending 
on the thickness of the layers of stone in the quarry, and 
that consideratle projection is possitle for cornices, and 
further, that the mode of cutting also aids the effeci. 


_ 


ms 
! 


>) - sate QQ2E 09 |. eotdotos? see .etdt of somstats7 atiz¥ 
ha yen enote to astttisu tagtettid to sew ont nsacq7 , 
ede acnote robt6d od? .mott0t¥aw0d eaots sc itstoersdo vl 
dtoa odt bas edisy Istutootte eft sot beyolque ei coeds 
dst retsa sat .gow eidt mf seller edi to easn odt 
8!) lan mk egatnsqo to eevertidats. .2soter02 bs9 2987500 
“ 2 fysede od [fiw ditow eaode too gaisteset s4¢ bas -at79 
lee to ont osfe ef etd? 1990779 yimogsn ont rott bodete 
i eesabied [suns to ascota ff 10 .ellewistca baretasly 
oF i n Sas 692 ofyasxs tol ,2t0foo daoxettih to tod deans 
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eyo7g altsted sratostido1e edt tot bec0 94 sedt bisonde 
bnegsb sodiwet etd! .eisoasa sdt ist nowse> eren odd 
ie¢an ods to sxetxe? sdf ao to emote SdF 2atiten To sage 
fda bas 692 siti bred yifsugs eas eaove to sdeed oz tT 
se05 043 dituw somsdrooce nk abko9b divode sao .esrersonee 
| beh eetentwobotg blwode sotdw Rarblred sdz to 
pene bee ¢eontss as garhired sat savig eeen af 
mote wsiisbh od? sono setdgttd bos [ottesdo-s est dotdw 
ROE ).g sotuotoel .on0 s19ddRtL sdt osdt euTOt 1927909 29% 
“Te sMOTPIGAPSGOO A9TIS 1, ( 
pontancs eidd ak atot to tusatests odd oF. Disyed, at 
#yed5 edt at bisa seed ybsorls asd ytsesscas anh ye 
Rameodn s es bas Isteney of ote SEL og ,edote3 goannas 
[ u peat yd Oeagkazsted ef goffontteqoo dora to astesieds 
it to oonnoo etenktat edt ed .etaeusls edt to, enotesan 
} aee3909 aetite to dottostotwy tdatie sdi yd Oas: .eagse 
Saen o1c ted adios sscghoty aysals a1cteisd? TI .aenk 
vasivtea ont. sterfies wol vieviteflox baa atciuow [isgve 
c atész atedizon odt .mottouttedo> of1d nk bazoloved 
Me ere dotdw of .agtels mtediaea wol odd to etatostidozs 
bad Sone .dotad bas astasvs3 tswol .nsitsvsd-diuoe odt 
Sfiiso sd yeu olyte gert? ad? .yfetl 19990 to stgé0stidors 
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ts es1ot been vieouses,ai¢gsa sisditon anf wsttoo eazas agi 
2 -eistI t99qga to dsdd af etiirovet d897g 8 gan dokan 
10 ,beatdae2 94 ysu died brs exxot sekfgoey of dae! 
sO?P s9gI0 to stotoesidows doizd eds ni yiteon bsaksmoo ybaorls 
AdtO> St19t Ors eioviwd Hodisos dvod beeu ofyte etd conte . xf 


to 


218 
With reference to this, see Tectonics, rp. 117, etc. 

Further, the use of different oualities of stone may strong- 
ly characterize stone construction. The harder stones should 
then te euployed for the structural parts and the softer for 
the mass of the walls. In this way, the water tatles, strang 
courses and cornices, erchitraves of openings in walls, supp-- 
orts and the remaining cut stone work will te sharply disting- 
vished fronx the wasonry proper. This is also true cf nalls 
tlestered externally, or if stones of equal hardness and str- 
ensth but ef different colors, for example red and nbite sand+ 
stones ere employed in a structure. The rarer kind of stone ~ 
should then te used for the architectural details proper, and 
the more common for the masonry. This further derends on the 
ease of working the stone or on the texture of the. raterial. 

If two kinds of stone ere equally hard, like red and white s 
sandstones, one should decide in accordance with the character 
of the building which should predorinate. Red sandstone used 
in mass gives the tnilding an earnest and gloomy character; 
which has a cheerful and trighter one. the darker stone requi- 
res coarser forms than the lighter one. Tectonics, ¢r. 182. 

I. ERICK CONSTRUCTION. 

In regard to the treatment of form in this construction, eve- 
rything necessery has already teen said in the Charter of Tec- 
tonics on Ericks, rp. 134 etc. In general and es a whole, the 
character of trick construction is deterrined by the small di- 
mensions of the elements, ty the intimate connection of the 
mass, and ty the slight projection of string courses and corn- | 
ices. It therefore always produces works that are massive, have 
small members and relatively low relief. Two styles have been 
developed in tric construction, the northern mediaeval brick 
architecture cf the low northern plains, to which are allied 
the south Eavarien, lower Eavarian and Cutch, and the trick a 
architecture of uprer Italy. The first style way be called tri- 
ck architecture with woulded bricks, the second is that erploy- 
ing terre cotta. Ihe northern style scarcely used terra cotta, 
ubich was a great favorite in thet of uprer Italy. Foth styles 
lead to peculiar forms and toth may be combined, or rather ere 
already combined mostly in the trick architecture of upper Ite- 
ly, Since this style used toth moulded bricks and terra cotte. 


ers 
: | erene bus edotad bebfeom aeewted eomexstiib edd 
SAddudsé-<e tess ,belobow ek tottel isdt teddy ,atat at 
wdis7 Bs dows .prtot otely to etinbs ototetsdt. dos 
lotid beblson oltde ,etnomsaTo horstyivos qlesst das 
muons: olyte textt sat sed¢ of ,edotid bofttosg vino ris 
dt ,sottetasasato bsiedgiscoe Sn6 L[atasnento Ife. gitsen 
. bed berofo> bus bowels evolzwe elyte tert? ot ,baed 18 
d Gus velo dettbave wort Hevtes shoold Letaswento visa 
# aredtzoa edt yd botsoz5 oft getessls yvevenod 
> dtin .etutcetiders ford sasnete 10 Breineld sdf ous 
nk: Stesoetideys Astts gtee s sottstrogsasad bev 
 s@ekekfecol enor at ylao efdsatvbs od son fiw sno 
acatuiee {fiw dF ,bentetdo, od ylroset yen emote so 
Se eyrmoest edt to? bse0 ylao gated mn ~efokts of be 
 .. \.¥auoeae NOTAT IMA BwWORS. TuxIM . 
oe yrenthro oft af dora wiiinne estatnare> al 
7 aot Sentetdo sd ysx srotve tuo toststticve o1sdn bas 
| se dots bas saote Sexta se ,elisteS Ls1ctootidow Leg 
Pavel eds ni yllotsney favct ant sfif ,bovolgrs ed [ftw no 
fasel | A eye ofttosga ylfodn s nt bszoleved oTsdt Sas ,zbns 
me obem ois esofut0 bas g2e1009 bacids odd ifs sxods 
yor edd te at ¢ftes ete soote to adsold bas: .sa 
' bain i evoob so8con edd tot Hexit sd of ste srodoss: nov 
ee 2 | oasueti 
ftouttanos ‘Sentn ata? to mtol peqalsved stom & al 
Bs Alsen 20 yrmoesT ost OF ‘Hotingt yletitas ek drondot 
Setoorte todio {fe es {fowes swobutn bas e105 to edust 
18d tq .basd sed%o sdt wd senote ton to eber ote atysg 
fo ¢avooss ano dofad to sd ys [Isw add goinodtansses 
emede Yul to o76.a0eed hus elatize> tisdd slide ,on0d: 10% 
ao. Peds SquTIetah oF Jaek BE Si ,esety SatsLoet to wees. 7 
iss72 svin oF esnote Sa0d tuo yd elsvraint talussy fre 
‘od yosm to etatoodidors euote bus dotad hariu sat 
vifssx ef sonseetsoed sdt bas es26 afbbia ads to 
Sette I[stosye = yatouboty ‘to moitagiar atedteo 5 absb nt 
ok id “bet a9 Sue sacotebasa stidw to atofoo to tasitaoo sad 
’ god bas guigniaqge Rattss00e6 sot teol ab UiaudrozJa off 
saose to asemmos ¢d yicossm ford anttqeaiesct 103 410 
-9i%) azoanstt wo ellie woonty es td¢ied ome sat te 


f 


he 


219 
the difference between moulded bricks and terra cotta consists 
in this, that the latter is modeled, cast or pressed in moulds, 
and therefore admits of plate forms, such as parts of friéezes, 
and freely sculptured ornaments, while moulded bricks ere prop- 
erly only profited bricks, so that the first style renounces 
nearly all ornamental and sculptured ornamentation. On the ofh- 
er hand, the first style employs slaged and colored tricks, ra- 
rely ornamental tlocks carved from sundried clay and burned. 

However pleasing the worgs created by the northern mediaeval 
and the Lombard or Sienese brick architecture, with out impro- 
ved transportation 2 pure trick architecture excluding all st- 
one will now be advisable only in some localities. Put where 
cut stone may readily be obtained, it will usually be preferr— 
ed to tricks, these being only used for the masonry. 

Ke MIXED SIONE AND -ERICK HASONRY. 

In countries where brick is the ordinary tuilding material 
and where suffiekent cut stone may te obtained for the princi- 
pal architectural details, a mixed stone and brick constructi- 
on will te employed, like that found senerally in the Netherl- 

ands, and there developed in e wholly srecific way. At least 
there all the strong courses and cornices are made of cut sto- 
ne, and blocks of stone are tCHilt in at the openings, wherever 
iron anchors are to be fixed for the wooden doors cr windon 
frames. . 

in a more develored form of this nixed construction, the br- 
ickwork is entirely limited to tbe masonry or wall, and the 
‘james of doors and windows as well as all other structural ¢t 
parts are made of cut stone. Cn the other hand, pilasters for 
strengthening the wall way be of brick on account of the stron- 
ger bond, while their capitals and tases are of cut stone. In 
case of isolated riers, it is test to interrupt the brickwork 
at reguler intervals by cut tond stones to give greater strength. 

The mixed brick and stone architecture of rany Cutch buildings 
ef the middle ases and the Renaissance is really refined, and 
in it is a certain intention of producins a special effect by 
the contrast of colors of white sandstone and deer red tricks. 

No cprortunity is lost for decoratins springing and key stones, 
or for interrupting brick masonry by courses of stone rlaced 
at the save height as window sills or transoms (Fig. 402), so 


spfeusa bovofsentot yrmomnn i5ind oct dad 
Yo suvdostidots doked bas onote boxin eis svid 
@ das testoeos odd stot ysds bos .qasta wilyoeg 
; \tostte ottetsotosiedo.& guintssdo to ensen [2 
nett aot visret nopenian epatbliod at ifetosgas 
oo seovutoente Ler 
pow, ha : -WOLPOURRSHOD. JOON 

hl id azxol to tiisd aeitite o18 esecod mabool 

ia aebao effen asboow té bise aved esd sedw siszHe) 
eQEL oF .eboO no goinptael to sosas0d off at opis 

» soaateisor edd yfoo tom mobtourttanco beon. mr sonts 
i ,see%se ssievansts bas noreasignoo oF stetoonte 
7 eusot favatourtte: yrstnsasls .bsitare ok goranet 
REIOH .noitouttenos onéta of boas seoas noztTt tasastiLp 
13 ,eflte ,puced exes eserte eetsvensit of Josidve ansed 
Deatiout .atcoy 918 astogqee [soitzs) .ansed antnieata bas 
{10 -paotesesgaon of toctdve ffs .se0etd baie atutta antes 
Bald geno [sottiey bose .aysedots e16 aoiangsd of azsduté 
fe [exsutoastea seect to antot ed¢ 10% .atacy neouo 
ao eotasovoel IO ast9ed9 edd of.ebsn ei sone4 
ieidtin stotoetidore noboow beyoleveb yilnt saom od? .S8l 
omvl bus eeiwe us beteorerges Isd7 ei bedatsgooe sis on 
t 8 doin yietvel ,ssol te tiiad yitaou eflasuret .asecod 
ox elise guttostoms vignomte od? .sbienk SoantL eusxt 
) baof ,enobartn avoissen Gtin astroce wel .asiisiise 
; edd sBonsteeque oftakaatosiedo tists esaucd nodcor 
erstourte astexsyoe foss ak agse tnatettib teom oni 
p boon to crea eds of opd ,eonrd) [Ls to aiaivies 
. -eetareuoo 

feids aisle te ssvtoetidoce. geboon Bnlate sem eal 
fit sated esoszetetal sat .zoitovitanos saadurt tied. 
fod: 1 ¢sd2? baoyed yrota doses to asttoeto1g.¢ sAaonioiad 
pede ,20nv0d stedt estretoarad> .etoor eliey yoote odd bas 
. ‘ied r9dutt. tied ceed? .dixet ont of. batgabs ¢aed ox 
» -botetesly ro ately seddie .faowdoiad) to aelasg:dtin 
) svissicosb edt one eometeej 18 aniesoly yissifuosz s 
~ nornguaranod auore ms JO0n qaxLs of hs P rio apd 

nb doapent al besese sem ered biee od gen 2evaseti 


- 


os” 


heen 


- 


‘220 
that the brick masonry forms closed panels. These expedients 
give the mixed stone and brick architecture of Bolland its 
peculiar stabp, and they form the readiest and simplest gene- 
ral means of obtaining 8 characteristic effect with suall- means, 
especially in btuildings inténded werely for utility, as in ru- 
ral structures. 
WOOCD CONSTRUCTICN. 
Wooden houses are either built of logs or ere half timbered. 
Compare what has teen said of wooden walls under A, 4, @, and 
also in the Charter of Tectonics on Woods, rp. 139. 

Since in wood construction not only the resistance of the s 
structure to compressicn and transverse stress, tut also to ¢ 
tension is exerted, elementary structural forms result entirely 
different from those used in stone construction. Borizontal 
tears subject to transverse stress are teams, sills, rurlins 
and straining teams. Vertical supports are fosts, inclined ones 
being struts and traces, all subject to compression. Horizontal 
timbers in tension ere tietears, and vertical ones are king os 
‘gueen posts. For the forms of these structural elements, refe- 
rence is made to the Chapter 6f Tectonics on symboléc forms, fr. 
122. The mest fully developed wooden architecture with which 
we are acouainted is that represented ty Swiss and Tyrolese 
houses, formerly restly built of logs, lately with a timber 
frame lined inside. The strongly projecting patle roof, cren 
galleries, low stories with numerous windows, lenc to these 
wooden houses their characteristic appearance, that varies in 
the most different ways in each separate structure by weans of 
carvings of all kinds, due to the abundance of wood in Alpine 
countries. 

The rewaining wooden architecture of Cermany chiefly uses 
balf timber construction, the interspeces teins filled with 
brickwork; @ projection of each story beyond that next btelon, 
and the steer gatle roofs, characterize these houses, which - 
are best adapted to the North. These helf tinber tuildings 
with panles of brickwork, either plain or plastered, acquire 
a peculiarly pleasing aprearance when the decorative brick 
bonds are employed. 

He. HIXED WOOD AND STONE CONSTRUCTICN. 


Whatever may be said here nas stated in seneral in relation 


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if tdgsote ak etnsueat® ,offtterye .kattciay sdt ao 24 
ote aedoon si0q t9dttew yftasbiv’ .ofs .288t to aval 
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© ot botqebe ast3ed ots dod tad .eeathlited Istassc 
y) .ote .eotetontta (ste 10 esacod tis tesbom 22ers 

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pos actfowit: eit Lis ,sonk yttave> .soaved ‘axstestot 
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ged [socl of baogeetr02. ot seeds ot asvis ad oOLoode 19d 
edt [itn sistoesidors asboon yleteq at elyts oeete etait 
b bus elsvitact 10% ~estotopise vIstegmet zt deyoisas ad 
a -2ee0g10g YISTOGMeT ootviettse seodt stot [srs 
. -bevorsz od oF ats 

| MOT EIUAPZHOO JATaY i 

ype cori #eso 10) tddeo7m to sgatbl[isd qtio vino side al 
@ @6%, ti osn07d) To ts00 ode To tnso008 1D -asitsiso0rea90 
@keysore fod sods bas ,botseg oteaslo add at tre2ra bees 
fo x .etsttnes saz cD) .fetaetsnx (stctcotts Istosze s as 
oe foktootteacd fequsostiders atehon at s1as7 tastroywt as 

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| wboe sabdiad ,anottidides (sacitensedat tot aaatolisd 
al is ,novk to soastateay 9d? dtin soceboo08 al .eases 
ofe 97 resentigel tovutstosrsds 3s syed Sigoda ff to eeun 
b@r 10 des2 to agotte dus eawolo> yi Sesetees ylterdo st 
Skeasd .eteed brs sisbiiy owt yi eeotte se1evacsi ,oovs 
Bane eiveom sie stoot bas 2liew ot? .abor 10 218d Jddeo1r 
i boow 19 gtaeess to sites son aoitwadsode ards to 
MB t9tOKt8d2 [et9q93 ed? .sasly to asvea TO ,soti dtiw nots 
a8. wos? ativess egetiitud sort ys Sozesaacy econtdarl 
3 ose situps dotdés .sodsf bas isfrates to yuonooe 101- 
tte sai etotsrsd! seldtecoq eaclenouth teallsae odd sven 
padtt ot bis7 sd Oluode voitastte aael odd .atetonita ads 
Bouborg of Stef ed bloote st bas ,sousiseqqs citdatize Lea 
‘4 ypaotliver efttrl ,eetutoutta [fsme to 9¢s89 al .tosite ano 
ri et od Jeon o1s> ,enotteta yerliat 10 ,.of% ,Ro8500 aobte3 


a 
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to the half timber work ‘just mentioned. In many cases the btase- 
rent story has a plein wall, especially if the upper story is 
half tinbered. The extennal appearance of the building then de- 
pends on the waterials and mode of construction used, as well 
as on the peinting, ssraffito, ornaments in wrought ircen, over- 
lays of tikes, etc. Evidently neither pure wooden architecture 
nor wixed construction in stone and wood are suitable for mon- 
unental buildings, but beth are better adapted to country dwel- 
lings, wodest city houses or rural structures, etc. 

this mixed style is well suited for small railway stations, 
foresters’ houses, country inns, all the structures attached 
to the drinking room at baths and spas, and a-peculiar charac- 
ter should be given to these to corresgond to local conditions. 
This mixed style in purely wooden architecture will likewise 
be employed for temporary structures, for festivals and in sen- 
eral for those satisfying temporary purposes, after which they 
are to be removed. 

N. KETAL CCNSTRUCTICN. 

In this only city buildings of wrought or cast iron require 
consideration. Cn eccount of the cost of bronze it was hardly 
used excert in the classic period, and then but exceptionally 
as a special structural material. Cn the contrary, iron plays 
an important part ‘in rodern architectural construction. 

The most extensive use of ircn occurs in railwey stations, 
buildings for internaticnal exhibitions, bridges and roof tr- 
usses.e In accordance with the resistance of iron, all struct- 
ures of it should have a character of lightness; compression 
is chiefly resisted ty columns and struss of cast or weougsht 
iron, transverse stress ty iron girders and teams, tension by - 
wrought bars or rods. The walls and roofs are mostly composed 
of thin sheets, nben not built cf masonry or wood in combina- 
tion with iron, or even of glass. The general character of 
lightness possessed by iron buildings results from an endeavor 
for econony of material and lator, which requires each part to 
have the swallest dimensions rossible. Therefore the stronger 
the structure, the less attention should te paid to its exter- 
nal artistic appearance, and it should te left to produce its 
oun effect. In case of small structures, little pavilions, 
garden houses, etc., or railway stations, care must be taken 


‘ 
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roe % : Sse | 
ener geo ot coals bus work dead ak at183 ste10906 oF 
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# wort teeo 10% afdstive ots antot wollod bas betsto 
ve ewel {e19005 .aott tdg0oam tot aboz bus e1sd ae 
z on0 aly 192 bilsy 918 aotmotos? to 33I bas bet “et 
 JOOW JHA BATS HOTT TDHXIU -O 
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: gakteveo edt svrece: of Bees er Foon bas ,aotk to 
vigeca 96% bus so1udogige Jove af boau ef [siseyeu dost 
n20% Iuteostg bas s4atl sdf dtiw ateattnoo yioatasaly ¢t 
| y abbtyd snote svtessx ,efamexs 10% .dronmott edd 
9 somite .eo3k taco to shen Tk cad? sootis azsfied s 
iz5 sot ehakblivd soaed ;x9tosied> svizesn & brovse 
pai fq stom ats asivtootte isfitia bas esisostayeseqoo 
easly to eben ylovitas, if asdt eeigagaay to efLivag 
| MATT CO TRANBDWAAHA . 
ro aoterets mot etfivee: selg edd to ddeaezasece erevi 
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etsdveacd beknss1e ot6 aftas 
ac » 20 sbsoat edt tesa Ssosiq 912 emoot to asia A 
ie natotenst sit bas ,ebatfiend tasostée ort ascat 
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mole boosfy 918 smg03 to asttsa ont , 190109 6 esiquo00 9¢ 
ag eins odd ts noot Isqioniag sdf zotvesl redste .staoit 
" vbtoses teed ysu es ,emoo1 as{Isue at bebivid ef 19egt09 
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\ sesins , exathliod of{deq to eshsoet [eatoaing sat 2anols 
easito ots node fied sotel 6 eg betesst od od et stefo0tte 
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| on esoot odd dotdu gd anoonm tetdo to aetise akdd batded 
bs “egg oat egnteltos. stf407 ak ssoteved? .alitassoos 
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222 
to decorate parts in cast iron and also to use wrought iron or- 
nawents of all kinds. The same is true for fences, latticed ga- 
tes, monuments, canopies over uells and similar otjects. Ferf- 
orated and hollow forms are suitable for cast iron, thin flat- 
es, bars end rods for wrought iron. General laws stated on ft. 
150, 154 and 164 of Tectonics are valid for iron and its uses. 

O- MIXED IRON, STONE AND WOOL CONSTRUCTION. 

In many cases a structure may te partly of stone, wood and 
iron; thus very large rooms have walls of masonry, the roof is 
of iron, and wood is used to receive the covering material. E 
Hach material is used in suct structures and the massive mason- 
ry cvleasingly contrasts with the light and graceful forms of | 
the ironwork. For example, massive stone bridse portals have 
a better effect than if made of cast iron, since casting must : 
avoid a massive character; hence buildings for exhibitions, 
conservatories and similar structures are more tleasing, if ; 
partly of masonry, than if entirely made of glass and iron. | 

F. ARRANCEMENT OF FLAN. 

Every arrangement of the plan results from division or addi- 

tion, @ sSiven area being either divided into parts, or such p 


parts ere arranged together. 
A series of rooms are placed next the fecade 6f @ house, be- 


| 
: 


tween two adjacent dwellings, and the remaining rooms adjain . 
the former. In a detached house, a villa, we commence with the 
largest rooms, drawing or living room, and the others are pla- 
ced with reference to them. In the first case, the plan is made 
fron front to rear of the building; in the second the interior 
is first grouped and then the exterior $s arranged. If the hou- 
se occupies a corner, two series of rooms are placed along its 
fronts, either leaving the principal room at the engle, or the 
corner is divided in smaller rooms, as may test accord with the 
requirements. A series of rrinciral rooms should always extend 
along the principal facades of public buildings, unless the s 
structure is to be treated as 2 large hall, when the others) 
are to te grouped around the hall. A corridor is often placed 
behind this series of chief rooms ty which the rooms are made 
accessitle. Therefore in public buildings the errangement will 
progress from front to rear, but in hall buildings comprising 
theatres and churches, it will te from interior to exterior. 


te 


ess 

Iya ast oa? otte out %o ads hse Sis cisx at 18610 aT 
ay obo yas stobttroo edt gest of ,bodasyis ef oF 
5 ott alobdce Sift aeathited yaea ak sod eldiveod ae 
‘eels sta ted .ecc0r 944 of BROSO8 TOT svies eno ton 
wot ac {fon es ,eveel> sosonted elevtetat at eftae1 yd 
‘hbehenatied ,elabow .24009 Snintetno> eeaso to nos 
Sobeultat oe esd doidn .sousttognt wst097> 2 suodee node 
sta jeoludttasy ci teol Beanies er 05022 .nely sad 
atit sin ot seaetts bloods sao stotetsdt ..ofe .2e 

Poekbltwd stidaz egusf Tr9V at bas ofdteser es sititl 
190 > Sit mort Sotdloas1 ,bevebraaos 87 teow sutt te aeol 
en bdrT102 wd gatélted edt To @oafn Trozstit6 os? To sor 
‘ on Pem0c1 tsdio #os9 1sen saaetre bloote so sonsd .ots 
h si08 notfosaned tkedt sisy OF bas .s5dtogcs aakanclot 
iT t bLoode eH .ofS ,etoora70o .eatets sisvizy to ansea yd 

it ptoau 28 afrw0s bus arobig1ed .esludttoey sdem of ett 
9% eTedt mae yd yousysx°0 yzeiozmet tot eves of .oldte 
mtd ffs to patrolies ,etoor auelg dtin etio2 sdatl aaigas 
‘ode ont eaattomos ‘erd? .berkvoo: sd yea ae estyeol bus 
fy Yo tusvehast1s to Oise ed yer sadt sousdioyur feon 
a , | eBOWTSITOR FO 2uorrde 22 ! 
) y epoitoos geou> od¢ ,bexkt exe esttote to effzted 31 
ee? .en8ly oft Yo Paowegnsrse. eds yt Osffottno> ore zyard 
is edt of woifeler s1otos#itote cxsbow to tmeq isitae 
fe mzot e6t sort vattiogst aseco [scotfqeoxe af ¢litro seat 
sas, ton yrova yne al ,eogogze7 Isfooye mort to atze 
yas og af eae sdf es ,fevel omee ont ao trodko 
a6 asifooeg aodw .29g8 Lanotiqeore ab teY wegatbit 
“Sedgid xo tenol obew exe efled osoe .yteansoea tt; sign 
> fod .%f ovods so nolsd todtio gaibastre ends ,ysote 

i seitts aietnvow at eo .ssifivosg sxe stke eat to enottrs 
poorg effeoen ofite 8 to aottsool Leatasbioos ed? .asii 
18 ets geom ano eteds ,setsose to etasngyasi1s wtivoss 
f 8r end? .bavota ad¢ to 2ucksibac> seodt to sen teat eds 
@ otat gist bas. eolor [fe nobdeds of yuszaeoen axoosd [f{sn . 
s8 soely of [ntsze9 9d bluode ono #07 .aca¢0 (siosze. ott tu 
oar. aiess: ot bat ,fovef one sit no aidigaog ee arooy yosn 
zi : -ue30 bebiosd estiote to inci 
2834048 PAUOD GMA aIIaAT 2A | 


223 
In order tn make the best use of the site, the plan is always 
to te arranged, so that the corridors may occupy as little area 
as possible; but in many buildings like schools, the corridors 
not only serve for access to the rooms, but are also occupied 
by purils in intervals tetween classes, as well as for recerpt- 
ion of cases containing books, models, collections, etc.; they 
then assume 2 Ssreater importance, which has an influence on t 
the plan. Space is always lost by vestibules, stairs, passag- 
es, etc., therefore one should arranse to make this loss as 
little as possitle, and in very lerse public buildings, the 
loss of time must be considered, resulting from the connect- 
ion of the different wings of the tuildins by corridors, courts 
etc. Hence one should arranse near each other rooms properly 
telonging together, end to make their connection more direct 
by means of private stairs, corridors, etc. He should further 
try to make vestibules, corridors and courts as useful as pos- 
sible, to serve for temporary occupancy by men, therefore arr- 
anging light courts with slass roofs, galleries of all kinds 
end logsias as may be required. This comprises the things of 
wost importance that way be said of arranserent of plans. 
€. SECTIONS OF EUILDINCGSs 

If heights of stories are fixed, the cross sections of buil- 
dings are controlled ty the arrangerent of the plans. The ess- 
ential part of modern architecture relating to the section is, 
that only in exceptional cases resulting from the form of the 
Site or from special rurroses, is any story not arranged thro- 
ughout on the same level, as the case in so many mediaeval bu- 
ildings. Yet in exceptional cases, when peculiar arrangements 
make it necessary, some halls are made lower or higher than a- 
story, thus extending either below or above it. When the con- 


Gitions of the site are reculiar, as in mountain cities or cas- 


tles, the accidental location of a site usually produces very 
peculiar arrangements of stories, where one must strive to make 
the test use of those conditions of the sground. Thus it may w 
well become necessery te abandon all rules and take into acco- 
unt the srecial cases. Eut one should be careful to place as 
many rooms es possible on the same level, énd to retain. the 
heights of stories decided upon. 

Re FACADES AND COURT FACALES.: 


©  oBFTAIAT | padod ‘mk -297A089 « Onda 
ft bos metate aort bevizeb. ye ea Bt sbsost sdf 
et ~ooktrog ,Bnobain ona @1000 to? ekataeso sdf snot? 
on ) taomegaet7s sit suiateteb ylisqioaiz7 ..ofs ,ei9H0! 
ee sc. bas ,katditud edt to sonstaegat bas scoring odt .9b8 
if gfao toa settups? sottsstzstostsd) sebsoet sdt to pxzct 
Gen tt tedt tod yaoitetet edt to dluser sot et rottetx9 odd 
yt seoquag beatteed edz of tosgast ytsvs at baogse7t09 
® bas alsiisten getblied to sotedo edt sictorsd? .esatos 
fisdtmreted aid? ditt. brocs totste at 94 taut ansot Lr 
S87e02 ofsethiodue to ylisrsm9y 918 aticco to aebsost 
igoftingsy ofat begoleveb o7e siicoo out sereo vasa of 
Strslisy qd bateto0e).ed yom avaoce ed? -adiow Lametoor 
om oisd bee enobuta xsd .atowot tiete bac s1iata ests 
vas yd ,tetad at ,ectstooot ous sito seten .89 
iB taco ¢auoo 6 ¢edd boreduenet od of at dt Sod .oottes 
Sidtesog netv to gateg fosteid teom 943 woat Llow 
te 10 webisk s eseclons tas09 ody tedtedw of 4nkds0008 
it estitty ot ds dona od team fosnogcetzs ett woty ent 


be | eoldteeod es einer 88 agkstosvas 
aa, ta J), e@20TIIINS FO sIWIa .2 
t sod {fede on ,s§atbited Yo adati sat Gatdtisasb al 


; Wee fv Had seridoth beh ebmeiges ri Sevyolyse tebic edd 
T Hite | » SRalolio? (stutloorzaa".t 

Byso & of Saefavtape aoksd'es bobrs2s3 od of g10 sesdk 
Bester since od stotsisdt fave ved! .teetetsié on satesy 
“Fesrzesd> bas [sc0f ot uted .sldiaacg ae elféornon 
8H et wstosisio wf9dt sons .2bodten fetotogite Sire 
F to soltayoosb add yd bas .s0cs 185378 tsoq eeasarrely 
etottetersy betsvitles ¢i'to ,ataktbdvotrne Leds 

ilo fe sousbroo0s af eoftev Aufquota O24 tuere2eT1s trodf 
- Phe igéasoq dffs betoonsoo o1s ved? TI .adeitibcos fefkosge 
$e 1190 ebioeb [fim rstostedo Isool sdt .esecodarst bas eey 
basget ac betebtenco od of 948 ywedd Tk sos .89Ge769708 Lane | 
ee wegvasie s ,nersidon to estatee edi to ero 
Yo enesn odd of galotosoe eisiagorqggs od {Lin gokios79 
“fern gatltevetg & To soestatxs odd ‘to Sao at sodd 349 
rE 2 ;iseqe of o@ ,tetostedo bestitvio stom 8 ouveas zodt 
egghete qfoaols ot wsdt tip1sq of Sedi0vs 84 syauls tenn 
ps 8 feist aleast Seer ads anes ind vito to tat 


“4 Wi 


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224 
Ke FACADES AND CCURT FACADES. 

The facade is esssentially derived from the plan and the sec- 
tion. The openings for doors and windows, porticos, logsies, 
towers, etc., principally determine the arrangement of the fac- 
ade, the purpose and importance of the building, and the detail 
forms of the facade. Characterization requires not only that 
the exterior is the result of the interior, tut that it may c 
correspond in every respect to the destined purpose of the str- 
ucture. Therefore the choice of building materials and struct- 
ural forms must te in st¥ict accord with this determination. 

Pacades of courts are generally of subordinate character; yet 
in many cases the courts are developed into Bagnificent archi- 
tectural works. The courts may be decorated by galleries, log- 
Sias, stairs and steir towers, bay windows and balconies, nich- 
es, water works end fountains, in brief, by any meass of deco- 


ration. Eut it is to te remembered that a court must appear an 
well frow the wost distant point of véew possible, and that 


according to whether the court encloses a garden or affords a 
fine view, its arrangement must be such as to utilize these 


advantages as fully as Possible. 
S. KINDS CF EUILLDINGS. 
In describing the kinds of buildings, we shall here follon 


the order employed in Eankunde des Architekten, Vol. If. 
1. Agricultural Euildings. 

These are to te regarded as being equivalent to a capital 
paying no interest. They must therefore be constructed as eco- 
notically as tossible, using the local and cheapest materials 
and structural methods. Hence their cheracter is determined ty 
tlainness, neat appearance, and by the decoration of their nat- 
ural surroundings, or ty cultivated vegetation. 

Their arragerent and grouping varies in accordance with their 
special conditions. If they are connected with veasants’ cotta- 
ges and farmhouses, the local cherecter will decide their ext- 
ernal appearence. Eut if they are to be considered as Gependen- 
cies of the estates of noblemen, a Sreater expenditure in their 
erection will be approrriate according to the means of the omn- 
er: then in case of the existence of a prevailing rural tyre, | 
they assume a wore civilized character, so to speak; still it : 
must always te avoided to permit ther to closely approach the | 
appeerance of city tuildings; they should remain rural structures. 


| 
j 


p Sdt of HSdostte egathifed Letwtfootr3e .2eitts at nove 
99 8 beoore fon bloods se2eslsz Sne asltess .aensldor to 
to ¢katl etd? .soustesqyys \Ieaitetxe sist? si ytaobou 
janosd? to anesm odt ¢d boxdt of Mtv ytotsqorg bas saqt 
if etoetidors ott to gatioet ovitoutsear sit Ons 

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sfq eagathbf{ied ssodt —_ oF soltastak add estaboo 
. _ etaeo stersbon 

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| aa97996 bas moktoottenso $rio2 .actsanstis tot sacet 
| fo ett Io etsonertupet tsid> sot sis thiotfaste Bs 
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aa. etovesbas ko yiitow aqoftetoosSs to aness 

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et seliuia of So9tdee ete ous 122800905 [sxutivotuge 
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eS9EuOH yti) .f ; 
itedn ,eetiine? efgete rot agatiforxb starsgea ets saad? 
Nua fetoot tot asacod ots ysdt ro jex0elsy 19 eB{liv .aopdion 
rod t srs ged? +Utota goss af etslt sion i) 9n0 g0rnistace 
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225 
Even in cities, agricultural buildings attached to the seats 
of noplemen, castles and palaces, should not exceed a certain 
modesty in their external appearance. This limit of permissible 
type and propriety will te fixed by the means of the owner, 
and the instinctive feelings of the architect. 

As for these, so for all kinds of manufactories in general 
is suited a plain end unimportant character. Like the workmen 
in working clothes, all such structures should be modest in 
appearance. All expenditures beyond absolute necessity and 
an appearance of neatness is best avoided, the money being 
tetter if expended for the tenefit of the workmen. 

Yet designs for factories, ty special requirements and con- 
ditions, afford opportunity for employing peculiar though sin- 
ple architectural forms, and require 2 careful choice of them 
on account of their wodest character, so that it is easy to re- 
cognize the intention to make these buildings pleasing at a 
moderate cost. 

Country seats of noblemen not having the rank of villas, but 
containing toth the dwelling and the farm buildings of the on- 
ner, should be treated as plainly as possible, so that all pos- 
sible capital may be placed in the tusiness itself. They usual- 
ly contain in a highervsground story the living rooms and farr 
buildings, in a lower upper story teins the tedrooms and the 
rooms for strangers. Solid construction and appearance, as well 
as simplicity are the chief requirements of this class of buil- 
dings. Fleasant surroundings ty gardens and parks are the chief 
means of decoration worthy of endeavor. 

Euildings for the forestry service are similar to those for 
agricultural purposes, and are subject to similar requirenents 
in relation to external aprearance. A rural character is advi- 
satle for these elss, and an adaptation to tocal conditions, 
so all is to te avoided, that wight give them a cityfied &ook. 

2. City Houses. 

These are separate dwellings for single families, whether for 
workmen, villas or palaces; or they are houses for rental and 
containing one or more flats in each story. They are further 
detached or ere builé in tlocks, i.e., free on all sides, or 
are in rows and then are free on two or three sides only. The 
degree cf externa’ appearance and decoration depends on their 


as) Pe Ao 399 
ia Feecktabpwsde nottoutteso> bilo sasts bas sonedrogat 
ffs bus bedsores od et af yiotagorg sesteos2 sid. Lh. .e4 
i _ shebolors exotoredd ate alstteden gaidiiod. to esate 
»sotesta a0ino .d9L7d 10 egot® Yo dates efieq: Lesret 
i ve tr 1ed% os0n 280778 tow bivodaveeved A; .er0ets9tni 
b aso ed ,gatbiivd etttcs ac taet of brotis aso iptqes00 
i esousoy od Sluode commsoedidote to ofyie biloeyE, b1ot 
m re : 6 ST supiter009b tnodtin svt 3 981290. neddsdans 9d 
dd nk noktesoo9b oft sc? ysq fenm dasaet 943 .fetosmaot 
f satutes of sid etem tedhezetds 10% e¢sq:sodti bas 
vitiqnte rllaetretes diver: aottouiteccs bilos to wel 
sigess ozottxs atiod tuo Oskarss tf .etHtoetiders’ yio 
G08 of cu (squ00 taxit bisow ti-a0% .ctst-ts078 ¢ oF -dfnon 
merot nisel of ao eeuso bivor ylbnoces\ bat .elsiveden ask 
sgzs oiteisés t90 To sau. odd ni yuoncos tnotess9: ont — 
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fdw tvodtin ,ytibiioa gesiope sautt 2208189778 bs 
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190d Of 24800. edt ac eoseysb) te1tt eancd « to nsia-adtr. 
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rms das odf .telt ono Jesal)ts dtin dose: .eeitotesv0b 4 
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Ou et ti ,z0ilrust Iseevee yd betagooo ,isdaer tot noegod at 
j fo? ,eetsota, ont af syif of doso: tot, aseso yosm of 
fh eetsote a90% sxivpes aett bivew cecod 2 foot. .usbresend 
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| ett asd tean0 edt sealou .Sebiove 9J) bfcode sosla 
| eee... oo) Svebabbitnd sdf paitssat qloyiisetts o 


wh 


226 
importance and size. Solid construction should first be requi- 
red, if the greatest propriety is to te exerted, and all imit- 
ations of building waterials are therefore excluded, all struc- 
tural parts beings of stone or brick, using plaster only in the 
interiors. A house should not appear more than it is. If the 
occupier can afford to rent an entire building, he can also af- 
ford a solid style of architecture; should he possess les means, 
he must then decide to live without decoration. If the house is 
for rental, the tenant must pay for the decoration in his rent, 
and thus pays for things that make him no return. This sround 
lew of solid constructicn would materially simplify our entire 
city architecture, if carried out to its extreme results, which 
would te a great gain. For it would first compel us to econon- 
ize materials, and secondly would cause us to learn to'exercise 
the greatest economy in the use of our attistic expedients, wi- 
thout which econory is impossitle @ sound erchitectural styles 
Net richness is first to te fonsidered in a house, but a refi- 
ned appearance suited to the rank of the occupant. This refin- 
ed appearance first requires solidity, without which there can 
be no real magnificence. Everything not genuine or that is imi- 
tative lessens this refinement. 

The tlan cf a house first depends on the means to be expend- 
ed, especially on whether all rooms are to be on the ground 
floor, or are to te divided among several stories. A house be- 
comes cheaper, the smaller the area of ground covered by it, 
and the narrower its facade. It will therefore usually be pre- 
ferable to occury more than a single story in practice, if the 
house contains a single dwelling. If the house is in a block, 
it will be chearest if narrow. In large cities where ground is 
very dear, each house tecomes high and narrow, containing three 
or four stories, ¢ach with at least one flat. The entire exter- 
nal appearance is then arranged in accordance therewith. Even 
in houses for rental, occuried by several fenilies, it is usual 
in wany cases for each te live in two stories, for example at 
Austerdam. Such 2a house would then require four stories for two 
families. The external decoration of the house is always arran- 
ged in accordance with the clan; therefore effectively grouped 
plans should te avoided, unless the owner has the means for al- 
so effectively treating the buildings. 


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224 

A vrincicpel requirement for villas is to obtain as large an 
area of wall surface as possitle for the reception of furnitu- 
re, consequently mot putting in more windows than are necessa- 
ry to light the rooms. Hence in wany cases an external wall 
is arranged without windows. Esthetic needs may reouire this 
wall to be decorated to not appear monotonous, but one should 
not resort to the cheap and senseless expedient of erranging - 
blind windows. Eicturesgquely grouped villa clans with praject- 
ions and recessions chiefly result from the general location, | 
whether they are connected with gardens, look out on fine viens, 
and further according to the site, which usually demands a pic- 
turesque grouping. The tuilding may then be treated ty means of 
loggies, bay windows, stair towers, verandehs, and like means. 

If houses for rental are detached, to reduce the area of gr- 
ound occupied and the width of facade es much as possible with- 
out lessening the requirements of the rooms, an approximately 
square plan will te preferatle, since the square has the smal- 
lest perimeter for its area, except the circle. These plans 
usually result from rectangular sites, if the facades are lin- 
ited to a winimum in proportion to the area of ground covered, 
for in case of an equilateral triangle its perimeter is more. 

The richer and wore extended are the plans of villas and of 
palaces, the more refined should te their external appearance; 
it it is desired to reduce their cost to 4 minimum and to tuild 
as quickly as possible, making the building hatitabtle in the 
least tine, one returns to the old Florentine type with rustic 
masonry and the simplest arched windows. If it te desired to 
adhere to the ground law cf solidity with the greatest economy, 
as in the great houses for rental, in modern cities one resorts 
to the tyre of the Roman palace with details of stone and walls 
plastered externally. These are the liwits within which the de- 
signs for the largest paleces must lie, while these palaces are 
for trivete persons. Frincely, royal end imperial palaces, as 
well as that of the president of a republic, governor, ete., 
very far surpass these limits, since their chateaus and palaces 
are intended for their successors, while private rersons usual- 
ly tuild for themselves and their femalies. There are naturally 
many other factors that influence the character of palaces, but 
besides the tuilding waterials employed and the magnitude of 


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the palace, the principal one is the time allowed for their c 
completion, which can only be reduced within certain linits. 
Hence with smaller dimensions a relatively richer treatment 
of palace architecture becomes possible. . 

The principal difference between palaces and public build- 
ings is in their character as dwellings, chiefly indicated 
cy the treatment of their windows. 

Evidently the most varied modes of treating houses are pos- 
sitle in cther respects, according to the requirerents in spe- 
cial cases. These will always produce certain results accordi- 
né to the way in which they are combined. Thus in different 
countries for satisfying different human needs, the expedients 

of the architecture of houses and palaces take different char—- 
acters. The nodes of life of different races, the materials 
at their disposal, the rank attained by the architectural dev- 
elopment, the climatic conditions, the ebnndance of a circula- 
ting mediuz, material wealth, and other factors , will decide 
the treatment of dwellings. Even the frequency of natural occ- 
urrences, earthauakes and inundations, storms and tempests, s 
snow and rain, etc., will influence the character of houses, 
es well as tee local situation, conditions of the site, and % 
the need cf greater or lesses durability. 

The “teeth of time” then does the rest necessary to change 
the appearance of the tuilding, and to chanse the splendor of 
newness for the venerable eprearance of the historical. 

2, Churches. 

In churches 211 should be atcided which recalls secular arch- 
itecture. They are tuildings for the exercise of Christian wor- 
ship, and we need only to consider the evangelical and Cazhotic 
confessions. Ihe evangelical church only recognizes parish cb- 
urches in cities and villages, and chapels like those found in 
hospitals, prisons, etc. 

‘The Catholic church reouéres i- 4, visbop’s churches, cathe—- 
drals or winsters; b, collegiate and abbey churches; c, perish 
churches; d, pilgrimage churches; e, votive, cemetery chapels, 
nausoleurs. 

The arrangement of the church must always be suited to the 
average nunber of attendants, which by investigation amcunts - 
to 55 per cent of the population, of which 4/5 are adults and 


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| t to nordecol qd .as [fen as ,@fogsdo .siodo of. auortEbbs 
it s% .atuensls seeds to eaaot odijyd viisnit bes ,e49 
pias aslz to wottsatdsoo oft bas 2sfeis ston so. 9n0 détw 
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staa bas Sektikaktd teow, edt aacnetenuoufo {Ig ssdeQ, 
pod) ,s0t weviats od of ef eps2, oft af ofdevisousos toatis 
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jfoads..to sass ak slisaiybe efuo ak eflan to gntusfas 
10 bebassss gatpiied s ,bsbser ei ysoneos foizse tL .ytie 
si po tot Lien gateqlous agsi orisos1 ftm asig Leytase 
po. eldesovst teow ad? af doY .asflg begeda acoso, 5 add 
toode ylao sd bigow Liew te. dixosf sdt,,.aglg, relsoric 
sigh odd somsh .sex8 Lauos to aslg axs00a,.6 79%, Fada assis 
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225 
1/5 children in round numters; efterwards to the special needs 
of the church which are:- a, the choir for the clergy; b, the 
nave for the audience. c, the sacristy; d, the tower; e, the . 
necessary vestitule, taptistern, rooms for instruction, for 
records, and for servants of all kinds. 

The plan of the church should either be arranged about a cen- 
tre, be oblong, or according to the Creek cross of equal arms, 
according to the Latin cress of uneauai arms; the plan may be 
modified in wost diverse ways ty use cf transepts, vestibules, 
additions to choir, chapels, as well as by location of the tow- 
ers, and finally ty the forms of these elements. From its paen 
with one or wore aisles and the combination of plan and section, 
producing a hall church with aisles of equal height, e chuber. 
with higher middle aisle, or finally a basilican design lisht- 
ed by windows high up in the side walls, results the éazternal 
masses of the building, modified in soce cases by the towers, 
secristies, chapels, galleries and triforiums, by treatment of 
the roofs and of the rather subordinate sables, dormers and 
ridse turrets. Ihe interior will vary with the construction of 
the ceiling and the supports, also with the distribution of t 
the light and the treatment of the windows. 

Under ali circunustances the most dignified and monumental 
effect conceivable in the case is to be striven for, in both 
interior and exterior of the tuilding. Therefore external pl- 
astering of walls is only advisable in case of absolute neces- 
sity. If strict econcmy is needed, a tuilding arranged on the 
central plan will require less enclosing wall for equal area 
than @ cross shaped plen. Yet in the most favoratle case of a 
circular plan, the length of wall would be only about 1/10 less 
than that for a square plan of equal area. Hence the gain would 
not te great. From its considerable volume, a church always re- 
‘guires a certain height corresponding to its area, especially 
if vaulted, and this chiefly depends on the span. In this way 
ty its consideratle extent, the church always predominates over 
other buildings, and the grandeur of ibs masses always demands 
a certain grandeur in the architectural forges, which must be 
chosen according to each special case. To go into details of 
church architecture belongs to the develored theory of building, 
wbich it is not proposed to treat here. It is now sufficient 


~ 


Mi 
y TY ty : 


. ue . ee, 
7 te i by ws ue I ef 4 Py," Se 4 Z 4 


hs nie Hania ‘, 


bfted todto wort gabtsthth en estdtodo tb rosoeteds 
fenot dowd to tcewtse7dt edt at adhttoq ([etivoans eon 

) @eenststt od? .btel et ebiee Istooge’s atin a0 etoos 
gio: odt to sometrosut edt Atk brotes bloods tasntedat 
petidows to ytstzey .elekrersa to yiifss9 7 abassed 

et at tysoed .vrsutesa base eieorsato odt ee ffay ee 
oy bebssors yitass ton ef worteto0ed af timtl atdtrss 
m ono soned jeu Satned eort eferbottss tse7e to A419 ott 
abate bee t9*0q sit eo fostts Bextesbh odt oschory of Srt 
Seldon efteted sat gntden .keviten (stetostidors sds ¥o 
fe ealtedeb at sortetodsls Ifs gutoavonss tod’ .bortin 

aa sesirstoded ob 

[fistntostidoze ro siteg sedtke ste aefistenso arsbol . 
WStescen owoe asin aoortaog ed bebnnotrme escola Lotrrd 
‘geom ote yous sonre .eonertas [eyztontts sat 8 S208 
ore weaoktevsls ao bas eettio wott soastegt amoe ts 
<n  gasfor sdf sasston® Gas ots yifeueu eonroousrtes 
; of ‘siersqss boddastt nommdo S15 eaosly fetred adt shoe 
dt sot F sever Sfert fetta tesay od? .edwot yliast oae adrot 

Marennotice sit bh beaneiss ote eimcf oft slide sed textt 
Ser bie esitctowos to teotxe #a9%3 407 16 Mnddene 29 -209te 
'gOt oldertest at @§ ,pantolied antecloas sat to feared wot 
ipettyoq anol sdo gtiagth bar go isszd ot enosest siteat 
ft .ocolnas base esatees thedt ts slsgedo stil exretonrte 
—ygepenie 508 etesuesos ree tal fds Ps 2estTs of oivetioe 
tte eoto109 -bodtos oteesis aut totte edret to afsstte 
f bre faqedo 6 ,{fe0 Iskyonsz 5 ,2o0tt107 sd? to aeode? 
j Setevih rot sonestwe [eqrouty; edt yeen bard ffe ‘to 
| ,ecoketbaed Leool atin autrrev sheer ot betaebs bas 
an of ¢isassned éysais af YI .cotastess> seedt sieto99d 
is abed? af owoqieg weds Ir yi fauslos Soe yttver2 ant 
biove od seve ffs bee’ hotts2003b bes tusmeyaéate Leth 
tw Betoonsc> eetntoowe serososttdo te telgsee of gxfza0 
eyus to sonebresat ,efatyo7 -:awoflot’ as.sre astisits 
bos elstottto rot esottto ~fessd> .Bsetesd) 10f asevod. 
dsh°bae atofsvecrs ,wete10h \asayofsne ted edntficed .ans 
Neva gorvoeesrh dtiw ¢rastion ,exswolf to e{se rot eyode 
dows estistyey’ aya that aga 19388 vBllon serosa 


- ‘4 ; 4 


lt 


m 269 sakeroseb teat Loarte {sttoeees ust s ston dy, By 


220 

to note a few essential foints, that determine the specific c 
character of churches as differing from other tuildings. The 
most essential portion is the treatment of church towers and 
roofs on which @ special value is laid. The richeness of the 
treatment should accord with the importance of the church, and 
depends on ‘quality of materials, variety of architectural forms, 
as well as the ornaments and statuary. Excert in rare cases, a 
certain limit in decoration is not easily exceeded at this time; 
the era of sreat cathedrals lies behind us, hence one must str- 
ive to produce the desired effect ty the power and orisinality 
of the architectural motives, making the details noble and dig- 
nified, but renouncing all elatoration in details. 

4. Cemeteries. 

Modern cemeteries are either parks or architecturally treated 
burial pleces surrounded ty rorticos with some necessary build- 
ings at the principal entrance. Since they are most properly 
at some dgstance from cities and on elevations, their landscape 
surroundings usually aid and increase the solemn Sravity requi- 
red. The burial places are common trenches, seperate graves, 
tombs and family tombs. The great burial field serves for the 
first use, while the tombs are arranged in the surrounding rpor- 
ticos. Cn account of the sreat extent of cemeteries and the 
low height of the enclosing tuildings, it is desiratle for es- 
thetic reasons to treak up and dignify the long porticos ty 
structures like chapels at their centres and angles. It is very 
Suitecle to arrange the laerser wonuments and mausoleums to form 
streets of tomts efter the classic method. Forches at the ent- 
rances of the fortices, a memorial hall, a chapel and buildings 
of all kinds near the principal entrance for diverse purposes 
and adarted to needs varying with local conditions, serve to 
decorate these cemeteries. It is always necessary to extress 
the gravity and sclemnity if their purpose in their architect- 
ural arrangement end decoration, and all must be avoided btel- 
ongins to secular architecture. Structures connected with cen- 
eteries are as follows:- portals, residence of superintendent, 
houses for hearses, charel, offices for officials and physici- 
ans, dwellings for employees, foremen, excavators and gardeners, 
shors for sale of flowers, mortuary with dissecting room, cre- 
matory, wells, water closets, sardens, nurseries and conserva- 


G 


i Hye a \etostidous edt to waldorz edt ak Pies 
a impel: ae ini: ( Obi hn. 8 wegugogsays 6? ; 
Dickaateteuere ceud pateeqow, ‘detnsh tot vise, he é 
as. ,do1d> asttiaidd edt elfeoet tadt .s9dt at, badtovs 
p odd to etuonsts Isktneees £14 sasfy eaoro ot: Gilet 
t .eieotones -hém 0% woot), Sleittasy ; basen dd [Lie 
Ton ,Syeritese ,soospea‘menon ,zetsizocs One tier 
reiiso bas etesols teten ,daobiesig bes asttayebh 20% 
3 ovis bos sonsstas Lsyftontag eds emrz0i slositasy agoks 
fe ibae. .cobon sit sot eetselleg ot rotbesl arisse ott of 
eidt sobeost ed? fo dreg Bsido sd? enzot onks ouse 
pe woo2 sds Herotae. et 3k sorg saego ylotitae nksnet ysu 
Seatonse od? Jtaow of teno sozt gathastxe ctese astm an 
} wot sdaomegaetis (stooge gafaicpss ufodo io bard 6 
satopet.bas ,tinev toomgestt © of exattiaa Sotose odd 
ete tefatiods bes tides oft sot Ba00d .askdex0986, ott 
o0: feds ,eortteffeh ygsoo0 ayents bfuode asmo@ .tase edt 
esd at tags ed? bes teow odt ts sitiste rrottaly oat 
8 Diss abeaa, aevkg o6¢ vod) sasm07.003 asdd stom tot. eda 
ope ‘bebastt6 vilsitoss edd, azideron satyth to efmenesio 
ats: P tertt off tasotitess gassibso sat 19 .aldsitus tear 
sido of neo sedd .gukddgil ossdisve ats yd oldeist 
tostidors edt 19t sigde deiiool 244 atosioa telaqqd 
sailisvertq on7. sbooumenss bas sudoasovs edt to)dasa 
qewilete 10% bean ed oF gino 918 e19no! eshlsood eqs 
De oiors qifeveass ose etekit caucd od3 ho ancitatnes 
ffs gaitsd angrot {sotatonosy bys toety ¢lao ,se20asorvs 
eds to sidbisiteet goiadot9 sdt bee .ssoint dodizcent: aa 
nen eizexed edt dived to Sfotdacdt bas wel sda 
91 cougozenye te soktouttsaao 10% anoitsigges toiass 
Begeors ,#0itt bas saets fu to dlind ¢lerkéas ed of sent 
ond ojgue tot aqmwloo saode bag soiz9tat aft ot ort, tose 
2 Liteso [etussegon shusmmeoa2 oale aslyad, epaitelisa edd. 


oe Lan ¥ 7 
eas 


.t 7 nt 


a | } dats has adi s0% Baokiouatancs feiaoganea ous ,soeactt 
» aia 

Cae leh -obteteweg) dekust .3 

bed bas. elfen {stnemuaem yd Oe¢ofoue sd bluons saadt 


j.. Me .aeveT: to is eaketroo enottoee ofat esett to ewos vi 
fii 


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a rz ; Ne 7 
o "s ve) ea , :  < 
os Oe 1) a Mar: | , 


B aunties quseesoen Stavectvues of. jacchoeneueds , 


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ae a .. ‘efbbaetea Rurtevoo siege teyqoo to sea 


‘231 
conservatories. Io combine all necessary buildings in pleasing 
groups is the protlem cf the architect. 
5. Synagogues. 

These serve for Jewish worship; hence everything is to be a 
avoided in them, that recalls the Christian church,-and espec- 
ially the cross rlan. All essential elements of the synagogue 
will be named; vestibule, room for men, sanctuary, rooms for 
rabbi and chorister, women’s Boom, s&sirways, wardrobes, hall 
for deputies and president, water closets and cellar. The spa- 
Cious vestibule forms the principal entgance and gives access 
to the stairs leadins to galleries for the women, and at the 
saze time forms the chief tart of the facade; this vestitule 
way rewain entirely open. From it is entered the room for the 
wen with seats extending from east to west. The sanctuary is 
a kind of choir requiring special arrangementr for receiving 
the sacred writings in a fireproof vault, and-requires artis- 
tic decoration. Rooms for the rabbi and chorister are toward 
the east. Homen should always occupy salleries, that require 
two tlatform stairs at the west and the east in case of sitti- 
ngs for more than €00 women. For the given needs and the req- 
uirements of divine worshir, the centrally arranged f¢lan.is.& 
mest suitable, or the ordinary basilican; the first beins pre- 
ferable by its overhead lighting, that can te obtained by a dome. 
Orcrley rejects the Moorish style for the architectural treat- . 
nent of the synesobue and recommends the prevailing style of 
the locality. Towers are only to be used for stairways. Repre- 
sentations of the humen figure are generally excluded from the 
synasosue, only plant and geometrical forms teins allowed with 
an inscrited frieze, and the crowning symbols of the tables of 
the law and the shield of Cavid, the hexasran. 

Strict regulations for construction of synagogues require ¢ 
them to be entirely built of cut stone and trick, excepting c 
cast iron in the interior and stcne columns for supportions | 
the galleries. Oprier also recommends monumental ceilings, i.e., 4 
vaults of all kinds as well es wocden ceilings with visible 
trusses, and monumental constructions for the roof with the 
use of copper aS @ covering material. 

6. Jewish cemeteries. 

These should te enclosed ty monumental walls and be divided 

ty rows of trees into sections contains rows of graves, the 


ai ohio prio neunsve edt Yo HE OY 
xd bstz0000 ozs alien yateoloas edt ts cobte taunt 1% if 
} exeob obfe {is dtiw ,y19Ssaso edt oF oonertae sat ’ 
‘ek ebie asg00l eeddn .Pt0d0- 8 ofni axs70 ,s00% ire 
fo agetostiod edt B90ivtee avotgifon 19t Lfetiode 
aed bas qistetss edz to sores? edt rot antvica sabia 
yar 2: TKS STIYSIZ rot nOOT 8 SRitywoo seed? .eenogta3 
: od? eerie eet gnidaee 0% woot © 2s [su 22s . teas oF 
b feun Ifed od? .3ey02 add no ylPoe1ld n5790 teom graven: 
$ at eyeunoob shin sestoost bus faes oF teow sort owed 
) @& aftioo ad? dokiw danowds ,asbka teanef ett to 
.oldieeor ae vol es gaobh adibustso awobatn satel 
| anked ton ,ebfetoo sdf mort scivise sat sosbaos atd 
.B svad téom eyarblied owad? [f[4 .fisd sat wstes oF 
 wmetientiens gab sbhanined) .sonstsex 7s Loitingth one 
ond Tes oe aLepeegts . 28S OCS 
a | estctblies Loadse .f 
ae | -afoodos .yrenisd of 
| ne Blootes. sseiity bac pieniag got evsead foonoe: last 
weeds botcozs eliistaaivacs ,bssoo1teros ylanie bes ylbiies 
eases. ous S3esTge Oa OF taqgory evsale al 1 .angb sduaso 
ieebuin oi''.ebte bast ttel edt ao vioo s0ei! eat tinbe od 
yaS aoomscen sB sd fas gatlios dt s890 30. 52a¢e2 bia 
pasteh etd? .so02 eenlo odd of tdRfi irehauds icuba oF 
fobotw yosw atsiuo tang tend .2aibliad eft ip sofsstedo 
5 t nt beosla yffesenss af ifed onze! A .baguors bated sea 
Mis at ton ti .teomsead 96% at avtesanyd & bas y2ota 199 
Metuzaitath yilastsitxs 4 Sisode 1193 seed? .s1c¢ogada o9 
(potiss oasibasl ed bivoda euoot okwerd .etod¢o adi reat 
Bh bas 210% ot douse sth) ewoot Loodse soaks .tuait: diros 
Neat wi eacteesca2 Oae anoktoetors vifsuee 515 etets soit 
) sree anana es betertiae of aatetio ydetedd nota. .a9id 
i -8figodee zadgiad .4:> 
: | nedara bus niccten lesa iaeeeath ,8Loodoa setgtd to8 
ie: .siderteed et sonstesgge (eoredxs tadati s .aloodoe 
edd bas gaothltod act to enotesesib afdaliovs ausaz 3sd7 
t oa: sted oels ef nektovxtese> biloég -Loodoe eds to inca 
due as od bfeoda. foodoe edt to 19fisdz3 ode sdgoweriones 
af aatisost fed od? e8viR orsdt. swoktoattanss 903 es fet 


apr 


cn 
a 


/232 
intersections of the avenues teins decorated ty fountains. The 
dinnercesides of the enclosing walls are occupied by family tombs. 

The entrance to the cemetery, with all side doors for persons 
of foot, orens’ inte a court, whose longer side is occupied by 
the hell for religious services, the buildings on the other s 
sides serving for the guards of the cemetery and for religious 
curcoses. These comprise a room for prayers extending from west 
to east, as well es a room for washing the bodies. The room for 
prayers must open directly on the court. The hall must also ex- 
tend from west to east and reovires wide doorways in the middle 
of its longer sides, through which the coffin is carried, and 
large windows extending down as low as possible, since the rat- 
bis conduct the service from the outside, not being alloned 
to enter the ball. All these buildings must have a monumental 
and dignified eprearence. (Eaukunde des architekten. II. pr. 
270, 284, etcseo.). 

4. School buildings. 
x, Primary schools. 

Srall school houses for vcrimary and village schools must te 
solidly and simcly constructed, monumentally treated when this 
can be done. It is always proper to so arrange the class rooms 
to admit the light only on the left hand side. The windows sh- 
ould extend ur near the ceiling and be as numerous as possibll, 
to awit abundant light to the class reom. This determines the 
cheracter of the building, that must contain many windows, th- 
ese being grouped. A large hall is senerally pleced in the ur- 
per story and a gymnasium in the basement, if not in a separa= 
te structure. These tarts should be externally distinguished 
from the others. Erawing rooms should te lopgiand nerrow with 
north light. Since school rooms differ much in form and loca- 
tion, there are usually projections and recessions in the tuil- 
Ging, which therety ottains an animated appearance. 

8. Higher schools. 

for higher schools, ¢ywnasia, real shhools and higher girl’s 
schools, a richer external aptearance is desirable, suited to 
the weaus availatle, dimensions of the building and the higher 
work of the school. Solid construction is also here the first 
requirements the exterior of the school should te as substant- 
jal as the instruction, there siven. The hall reouires larger 


‘vor? 


ees 
PY SI 8 of Bbeel siotsreds bas enotawantd 


al ae tein tleotiertze of biota + ‘bie jhery at 
Se pate 
| Baca -(Iemolaastesg to yrsbn0e%2) .efoodes marl «Y * 
“to eeiwebece ,afoodoe otwdostyfoy bee e2iticteviat 
sb rete elovitelor edt errhp? sTootse teittid’ telimte 
f ac Soustroqnr thedt of gakb10d08 ‘Yottetrcs sdt to Wot 
pel spellon nistan> egutblisd sasd? .sekasbeL to back 
rey aia atacttto tot etoor .ffed testa odt . andor eesto 
done eeukt fx9091 al .esibute bes Bottsrodsl ,anvsain 
S enotbites to eoltes botoommos’ s ce boanstre ‘food over 
© Ott bus {fed toon odd eebtest \ermtonzte Cs3f>obey SK: 
| ,emoogun edt elisosneve bas anoor stetosl existrod ¢tno 
eseq9e at beosly ets stnositeqsd {stosqe bas esktots7o 
8 p’ yffsaensy amoot o1ndo0f tobrsf oie bes (fed su? vesat 

1 ba bolted sit sonta .sbsost odd ci anottostory Yo t2d000 
ite Pelied tiste .asivditesy eat Vatobtr1o. anol esriopss 
Y ) tnemt sors qedott & wor ysfunt1090g0 Srotts [fed teane 
ts jee ,Bn00T soknerd -Baodeow osol’ sat yaottroq Lert¥aso 
dood ‘em007 sonbory stotstedt bus fdarl to Iseb tes71R° s 
hit te ogres agoTemGn .Bwobaiw ads neonted erstg worten a3 fu 
| isis 970m ,beboom bavorg To o518 Sud aesetont ton 6? 
pivent sednid aot emottotivent sesdt to endivaog svoe ets 
) wort qidors ead? .deor edt asdt estiote S1om sates a0 
WY .etoszaticpes ‘Tessten $43 sott ticass 2ngtesb’ b43soe7 
tee SBed? wod bas Tedteiw ,peoHstanuoris Istosze" odd ao abh 
ot it bedasrts ed 30 dtvoo 8 bawots Ssquo7y od bLuodé' adnt 
9 esiagts bas gttves® s@uebtsh to wéfeye & etter nots 
 .sone7s9g7e fenistxe tkedd rot slisdive ayexic’ ste 
‘{oteseds su tdiw edt gutters obeve stotersad oft 
a “esa00d stage bus boosted oF bet tue’ sodebitemden dnet 
fF at bexast1s ste ebotblted to’ ebutd to reduoa beber 4‘ 
Ds isace giod? to tagoo0e go ezsl ,sottsottieesls gatwol 
pevavere esod? veicossstupes saftate thodd! 7o% eedt’ (bee 
. | sancti 
tte Isqtoutag s Yo tetend> yltstoo tedt agatblicd .x’ 
gnoo ,ebaid {fe to exoot etshtbiodpa bsdSene0d S18 Motta 
mtbiiod ,eskasdors .efled g19d000° ,aguiblied evissreiisz 
igen yh ibaa al "pbatonet got elisa Boas 880s bd 


233 
dimensions and therefore leads to a considerable enlargement 
in plan, and it should te artistically treated in the richest 
manner. 

Y* High schools. (Secondary or professional). 

Universities ané polytechnic schools, academies of art and 
similar higher schools require the relatively highest decorat- 
ion of the exterior according to their importance as institut- 
ions of learning. These buildings contain college lecture and ~ 
class rooms, the great hall, roofs for officers and professérs, 
museums, latoratios and studies. In recent times such buildings 
have teen arranged as 2a connected series of buildings, so that 
the trincipal structure, besides the great hall and the offices, 
only contains lecture rooms and eventually the museums. All lab- 
oratories and special departments are placed in separate build- 
ings. The hall and the lerger lecture rooms generally cause a 
number of projections in the facade, since the building usually 
requires long corridors, the vestibules, stair halls and the 
great hall afford opportunity for a richer treatment of the 
central portion; the long museums, drawing rooms, etc., require 
a great deal of light and therefore produce rooms like halls 
with narrow piers between the windows, numerous large windows. 

To not increase the area of ground needed, more than necess- 
ary, some portions of these institutions for higher instructi- 
on require more stories than the rest. Thus richly grouped and 
treated designs result from the natural requirements. Tt depe- 
nds on the special circumstances, whether and bow these tuild- 
ings should be grouped around a court or be erranged in connec- 
tion with eae syster of gardens. Cravity and disnity of character 
are always suitable for their external appearance, and we sho- 
uld therefore avoid treating them with the cheerful and luzur- 
jant magnificence suited to palaces and opera houses. 

A large number of kinds of buildings are arranged in the fol- 
lowing classification, less on account of their special purpo- 
ses, than for their similar requirements. These classes are as 
follows. 

a. Fuildings that chiefly consist of 2 principal hall with 
which are connected sutordinate rooms of all kinds, comprising — 
legislative buildings, concert halls, exchanges, buildings for 
festivals, theatres, halls for dancins. 


gos boyastrs aosktte to baeoques giteid> exard{ioy .§ 
ncbiddae dest ‘8 G¢ia Befoeunoo sd you feds bas ates 
Sled ,esottto teoq .aeitttetete ,siled anos asstrgaes aka? 
Dioner VIwt tot (fed eds Wie ets Leatwira ,es0rtto 
Wi -2eitetoor tot abattiiai bas sontasco 

i to effed Istevee to dekenoo yltstdo eqqntbliol .y 
Lane -Basseem oatetsgx0o ,os0c1 rsff{sea ddin 
4 5 . . -@aorsididse tie t03 exactblies .e99 

pottio to ‘asoot tod [ist sort on aketeoo sgarbltuzF .4 
ad> 8 dtin botoenscs o1¢ bas atobinto> sicjbe tedt ass 
Bs ecotees jausani saietiqeod jenoituiiient sasvolsned 
a). ‘spaoetag ,ssfieqtees Isotgofoods .euglyes batls 

3¢ ee, seioantas BIatGirnd yrsdElit .s 
engeuod His 

: a0 elisd telleme nae emoot diiw dbetoenmco elish .2 
p csifed sedxzem .encdtiste yewlte1 eptel dateiaqmoo .medé 
6 Letatevboi vot exaibliud  »setsctsviesnce vaeansdoxs 

teds .pektdanot- osnoid .etaia .esiissosisas .f 

Mgeed foauss 40% ,amntrsope .2sirotsvisedo .edéei .x 
oe -tealo yas ok. 

fm e@0sc09 af agntdd yasa aved bars yas to ayarhliad sdf 
asd f 910s ddsoudt Sdyted ct wbrosxs evowle Lisa Leqtostyy 
th fotos ,a9sxed Bas a9ftsi ise vi babavottes at .wrote 
vam gelfsue goetateiuc> astiote cwi 10 sae to egardiios 
s. J yeu agathitod ytots Gut seedl .esotito hae e1odky 
ay act T9V0 e@9teatuesetg aodt [fei en? .etroo hanes 
ag din toor sodaid s eetings: snilftes seoda .gakdfias 
dtix e@sdsors dtiw to Besofo gaisd sefiate tasol oad 
,tol{ene es [Lor ac ,8949q99 tisds te ayswiissa Oge 
Se auth ibee 63 betcers ed yen colgas sé? .yicia s9990 
Rtetoose 6 FGOTR Bids 192 sBooit10g yi dabavotiws antes 
Bassi3017 (stosqa 9dd adiw. sogsbr0908 af osielovab aysals 
om exabbltnd odd 

ls Lme / efoenetfasy to.esgu0k .6 

pre elyosy odv one siste edd stedn taonetitsg to zoag08 
ib s stisoey .Beiiagss odd bus giseivia ead ys betasaet 
Md Glest odt %6 eaentsory sdt Uddin sonsbroo0e mk sonozttiaysa 
t te Wettib binoda refostedo afedt dud .b2yoete axe yedt dotda 
epee. edt to sosleq hae to tsdt aoxt mnereny as doom 


f ' a2 


- Lwin 


Af vl 
fe 


_ 


‘234 

8. Euildings chiefly composed of offices arranged around co- 
urts and that may be connected with a lerge principal hall. 7 
ihis comprises town halls, ministries, post offices, telesraph 
offices, criminal courts with the hall for jury trials, banks, 
casinos and buildings for societies. 

y. Fuildings chiefly consist of several halls of medium size 
with smaller rooms, comprising museums, libraries, record offi- 
ces, buildings for art exhibitions. 

$8. Euildings contein no true hall but rooms of different si- 
ges, that adjoin corridors and ere connected with a chapel; b 
benelovent institutions, hospitals, insane; asylums, deaf and 
tlind asylums, theological seminaries, prisons. 

©. Military buildings, barrecks, headquarters, arsenals, gu- 
ard houses. 

¢%. Halls connected with rooms and smaller halis or without 
them, comprising large railway stations, market halls, produce 
exchanges, conservatories, buildings for industrial exhibitions. 

n. Wanufactories, mints, bronze foundries, abattoirs. 

«x. Eaths, observatories, aquariums, ctc., cannot be tlaced 
in any class. 

The tuildings of any class have many things in common. The 
yrincipal hall always extends in heisht through more than one 
story, is surrounded by galleries and toxes, adjoining it being 
buildings of one or two stories containing smaller halls, cor- 
rigors and offices. These two story buildings may be Broured 
around corts. Ihe hell then predominates over the rest of the. 
building, whose ceiling requires a higher roof with lower wings, 
the lower stories being closed or with arcades with vestibules 
and stairweys at their centres, as well as sueller halls in the 
upper story. The angles may be treated as pavilions, the courts 
being surrounded ty porticos. For this group @ special tyre is 
always developed in accordance with the special programme for 
the building. - 

8. Houses of parliament. 

Houses of parliament where the state and the people are ret- 
resented by the ministry and the deputies, reguire a dignified 
magnificence in accordance with the greatness €f the realm by 
which they ere erected. Eut their character should differ as 
much as possitle from that of the palece of the ruler. Cren 


diet otecr Jovegun' hes ieee {eorstee s2oottt09 
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| 235 
porticos, external stairs and towers, where bells are rung at 
opening and closing of sessions, convenient access and corrid- 
ors are particularly adapted to these structures. ihe side wi- 
nés containing the offices require a simpler treatment. 

9. Concert halls. 

These laways contains a large concert hall with galleries and 
boxes, which dominates the whole and requires a kind of basili- 
can plan; vestibules, stairways, clothes rooms, promenade halis, 
restaurants for the public, halls for rehearsals with wardrobes 
and stairs for musicians, adjoin the principal hall. This usval- 
ly produces an oblong building over which the hall must predom- 
inate. If these concert halis are connected with consérvatories, 
they then require wings with rooms for instruction and adwinis- 
tration, libraries, smaller music halls, roows for servants, 
all these being arranged about one or two courts. The charact- 
er of the concert hall should corresfond to its purpose, which 
is enjoyment of ideal pleasures, and it should therefore be d 
dignified, but sraceful and cheerful. All symbolisms referring 
to music are therefore peculiarly suited to this purrose. 

10. Halls for dancing. 

These consist of a hall for dancing with galleries and smal- 
ler halls, clothes rooms, promenade rooms, restaurants and play 
rooms. gardens and conservatories are generally added. These 
buildings exclusively serve as pleasure resorts and should have 
a cheerful character. They reauire little of the monumental, 
tut may be constructed of building materials of less durability, 
employing any mode of decoration suited to the needs of the t 
time, and for tlaying a part in decorations for festivals. 

Halls for festivals as usually erected in many modern cities 
nearly coincide in requirements with hells for dancing; in teth 
must be provided a means of rapidly emptying the lerge hall in 
ease of fire. Hence external galleries and numerous exits are 
desirable. Halls'for festivals serve for the most diverse rpur- 
roses of enjoyment and amusement, sre often tonnected with ex- 
tensive ctleasure gardens, but differ from halls for dancing, 
because a much larger number of people must be provided for. 

The hall is also used for exhibitions and must dominate the 
entire mass of the building and be fully lighted, thus requir- 
ing skylights or windows in the upper portion of the side walls, 
and should also be fireproof if possible, shile tee hall for 


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236 
dancing does net require lighting by windows, as it is seneral- 
ly used only with artificial light. In these buildings for fes- 
tivelss as in those of class 4, it is advisable for two reasons 
to arrange stairs in stair towers, because a clear idea of the 
arrangement of the stairs is easily remembered, and for the es- 
thetic reason that the principal mass of the hall is contrasted 
with more slender masses of equal height. 

11. Theatres. ; 

These are dominated by the audience room and the stage. The 
audience room is generally semicircular, and its natural form 
should be expressed when possible. Vestibules, anterooms, foy- 
ers and principal stairways form a mass, which properly proje- 
ets tefore the audience room with its sgallertes and boxes. All 
subordinate rooms are best cleced in the side wings, that in 
exceptional cases include courts, as in the opera house in Vi- 
enna. The character of the theatre is that of dignity and grace, 
that of opera houses and comedy theatres is cone of srace and 
cheerfulness.. Co acconnt of the small durability resultins fron 
danger of fire and the performances, attention should first be 
raid to securing the greatest safety possible. Nonumental arr- 
earance is second as far as it corresfconds to the dignity of 
the building. Therefore stone and iron construction play the 
chief parts, and wood should te used as little as possible, cn 
ly where indispensable as in the stage construction. All mate- 
rials of small durebility tut incombustible like sheet zinc, 
stucco and ¢gyrsum, may be used in the interior of the theatre 


with perfect rroporicty. 
As stated in the preceding section for dancing halls, the ar- 


rangement of stairs in towers is proper for both oractical 
and esthetic reasons. 

Everything symbolical relating to dramitic art is evidently 
suitable as decoration. Gardens before the treatre, foyers and 
open porticos for the public, while awaiting the performances, 
are also appropriate. 

12. Eank and office buildings. 

Exchange buildings always require a sreat hall, ahich domina- 
tes tke building, as well as e nuwber of different business of- 
fices, with vestibule, stairways and other accessories. For t 
their characterization as distinct from cther buildings, all 


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237 
emblems and symbols are suitable, that relate to business; tn 
order not to impair their characteristics a certain measure 
of decoration should not be exceeded, and alss solid construc- 
tion should be wore censidered, and decoration by the use of 
valuable materials procurable in trade, than a rich and mag- . 
nificent architectural style, better adapted to other buildings. 
Eanks and exchange buildings are suited by an ostentatious cha- ' 
racter, most cvrorerly obtained by expensive materials. 

The Broup of kinds of tuildings arranged under 8 is charact- 
rized by being composed of a large number of simmilar roors for 
Like purposes and with a uniform character, only wodified by 
prominence of vestibules, stairways and separate hells, nost- | 
ly tleced in the upper story, therefore higher than the wings.: | 
They are nocrenneatiyssimtileritossthodlbbaiddigses,| but only in 
exceptional cases do they require as many and es wide windows, 
excepting in the halls. Hence long rows of windows usually oc- 
cur and the tuildings have several stories, sometimes two or 
three stories tesides the tasement and meqzanine..A-.plainer 
character is suitable for offices, dwellings and rooms for ot- 
her purvoses, a richer treatment for the halls. 

13. Torn halls. i. : 

These contain the offices of the city government, and thus : 
many offices. Eesides they comprise e large hall for asserblies 
Elaced over the extensive vestibule, and elso large and spaci- | 
ous stairways. In many cases a tower is added, as already sta- | 
te, to contain a-clogk that strikes and also a bell for indica- 
ting the hour, with a room for the fire watchman. . 

The hall and tower reauire relatively richer decoration, thus 
giving the town hall its peculiar stamp. The offices need wide : 
corridors, usually arranged around courts. 4A portico is placed | 
over the vestitule with a balcony or open logsia opening out 
of the ball, te serve for announcements or for representations 
during festivals. These are then proper for the tno lower sto- 
ties of the tower. 

14, Kinistries, post offices, telegraph offices, courts. 

Such buildings are almost entirely composed of offices arran- 
ged about courss and with corridors. They usually require sev- 
eral entrances and vestibules and sometimes several courts. 
Cenerally a richer mode of treatment should be rejected, and 


a. 


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238 
one should be satisfied with a massive and solid style of arch- 
itecture, which should be distinguished by the arms of the sta- 
te, and any richer decorations should be concentrated on the 
portals. 
15. Casinos, houses for clurps and societies. | 

Such buildings generally contain a hall for cancerts and balls, 
in the upper story, as well as a number of very different rooms, 
used for recreation and placed in the different stories. The : 
external treatment corresdonds to the means of the society ty | 
which it is erected, and therofore varies sreatly. With the use 
of abundant means, we should try to characterize the hall on 
the exterior, also when these buildings ape connected with gar- . 
dens, to make them effective by terraces, verandahs, etc. | 

Hotels are allied to this class and are evidently arranged | 

and treated in accordance with their location, size and rank. 
The dining room becomes the principal hall. 

Euildings pleced in class y have many things in common, bec- 
ause they usually have no principal rooms except vestibules, 
that reouire to be distinguished above others. They senerally 
need numerous and large windows, ne windows in halis having 
skylights, may have corridor-lifte logsias, may be decorated by 
vorticos,and reauire a noble external treatment according to 


their dignity. i 
16. Museurs, libraries, record offices, art exhibitions. 


Little may te said in general cf plans of these buildings, 


Se 


ee 


as this depends on the magnitude of the collections placed in. 
them; also on whether these buildings may or may not be sroup- 
ed around courts, or whether they have one or more stcries. A 
ehied requisite is safety from fire, and on this ground alone, 
with reference to their noble turpose, they are monumental 
buildings of the first rank, and solid construction is not cn- 
ly suitable for them, but alse decoration by sculptures and 
paintings. Record offices must te entirely fireproof, tut do 
not need artistic treatment of exteriors as much as the other 


tuildings of this grour. 
The character of museums will very according to the objects 


collected and exhibited in them. Collections of paintings and 
statuary are hishest and require the noblest treatment. Libra- 
ries ere suited ty a dignified appearance with decorations by 


i es” Ten 


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239 

statues and busts of fhe principal authors and sculptures rel- 
ating to the departments represented therein. Art museums sho- 
uld te decorated by portraits of artists and by symbolical 
representations of the arts; collections in natural history 
by portraits of men eminent in that science and representati- 
ons of distant parts of the world; ethnographic collections by 
representations of foreign races of men, etc. 

17, Hospitals, deaf and dumb asylums, theological semina- 
ries, prisons. 

These buildiings grouped under 6 have this in common, that 
they generally consist of many rooms of the same character, 
arranged around open courts with corridors or porticos. They 
are usually connected with a chapel, which affords opportunity 
for special treatment, while the other parts of the building 
reuain plain. Prisons ackuire the character of gloom by their 
small grated windows, heightened ty the heavy doors and by 
architectural elements of all kinds pertaining to fortificati- 
ons. Hospitals and asylums should have a more inviting appear- 
ance in the parts seen by convalescents, even if simple, to 
meke ther more cheerful. Ornamental grounds, sunny porticos, 
beautiful views and whatever elso that can rejoice the heart, 
will be tenefilial and suitatle in this respect. 

18. Military buildings, tarrecks, headquarters, arsenals, 
Cuard rooms. 

The buildings of group © are buildings of heavy’ appearance 
corresponding to their purposes, to which the solidity of the- 
ir rusticated masonry end tha luscan order arepgpeculiarly sui- 
ted, and require to be characterized ty all having reference 
to war; simple forms as told as rossible, massive construction, 
decoration by tapestries, equestrian statues, battlements and 
many other expedients, peculiarly adacted to ther. 

Earracks produce a certain uniformity by their extent, that 
cerfectly corresponds to military affeirs, with @ contrast by 
angle towers, massively treated portals and the facade. 

Headouarter buildings contain offices and the dwellings of 
servants, therefore approximating the structures classed under 
8, but require the character of buildings intended for war p r- 
roses. Arsenals are principally magezines for arms, also in 
many cases contain museums of arms, and they are sometines 


erhanot mona) eure 20 aekrosostones dite betoeng09 
) al in quay ot betelor goied seed? .encttste tusak 
is be e084 ste agctofited tnetettth to ssdnog spel « rate 
* ‘to spsanm edt ys baiguodo et sifzeo sscdn .sire ics 
-eaaapieanes vii es pee {iiw e1snot .bedaowel 
aa Pp) er omgarhlted: pspittc 
gbotrotevt22q09 altes: eviese pBaociteta, venltod «Qh. 
bF | | sea0rtididxe [sttteubar-15t vials 
D hehacet avewls dmet tsdgid to anclisia yewliaa - 
muoze x0 -batosnaes sts snoor tedfo [fe doldw dtiw. afled 
Stim betossn> 91s e001 auivien od? -begne1ts 938 sasdt 
| @ ef nottete edt stotsred? .acoits0g 10 golodssaey 
to ba moo .ehotn ebfe bas eookiteg déin yarblivi. Lex 
Siiersy ef (isd tacos od? wedaevre2 to agatlisud siz bas 
@t 04 welvotbesyxeq bas nottede devoid? 8 to sisost ade 
9c sibddyodoffen ebsorsseueo. coil) .anoisedg features 
yewiftet tot arhfasd Yo Tosuels duecisos s espooss 
piadsnsdten09 to asitousseyerceosd sesat vitosapssmed 
,doolo 8) syaticec dtiw yesaiu. .pofuditesv aredt. bas 
im@ohtysoxs suodtin Zaouls ose god? .ynesvea wilwosy 6 usadd 
ne a : 5). etuodguotd? .2iiad glove 
eudct' tor aparece See asenved tosls ,elisd sedisy 
atOvO2 aoTk to eowwtoctds fae] f4919 ah S42 andtsidia 
faniséxe tred? .cimo0aar ak enotitcy soe. dein agela 
Posts > bas ¢oaitaib wav esmooss ‘Serolyes aletaster edt yi 
Siciieds ,ssithavot escoid ,etate .estrotostuasi 208. 
i> tod... ovieasr yllense ore geefo aids of eaaibirod Lid 
) bts 101 esitovost to eses. ed? .etilite 20} osometei' yl 
bfvode youom sdt,tot ,botstfe gdbesrls ag: ineutesat 
st090b tot aedt ,meatbrom ont ¢iteaad o¢ bgdssg 10,39 
teow odt abetio of Qaiyis diton ef Sk deY .aotbfliod 
Byes’ -osathosegss evarsboa 8 atky sone tecggs 
t vee ieatial euntblinud eiste xo [eyom.o18 etati . 
99050 rotfos af dasmisestd taohom ti neve .nokscnrseld 
pot bettotf vifezease ek aokisi0ossh sat .esiottaia +7 
ated? .comdotem edt to esevod od bos eoteg soasites 
ladies to ehsed gd yileotloirye betasesige2 fisx si 
ies Ieotpolcos ,avolteops, ,eeisoisvieado ,edted ofS 
geition bas eolodiveey exisi sivost, esacod ated 


WL ar 


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are are 


240 

connected with manufactories of arms, cannon foundries, exper- 
iment stations, these being related to group n. In external de- 
sign a large number of different buildings are arransed about 
an axis, whose centre is occupied ty the museum of arms. Fatt- 
lewented towers will serve as eppropriate decorations for such 
arsenal buildings. 

19. Railway stations, market halls, conservatories, buil- 
dings for industrial exhibitions. 

Railway stations of higher rank always require large covered 
halls with which all other rooms are connected, or around whicb 
these are arranged. The waiting rooms are connected with large 
vyestibules or rorticos. Therefore the station is usually a cen- 
tral building with porticos and side wings, containing offices 
and the dwellings of servants. The front hall is parallel to 
the facade of a through station and perpendicular to those of 
terminal stations. Iron corréspondsnweitrtepthéir nature and 
becowes a dominant element of designs for reilnay stations. 
Consequently these tecome structures of considerable extent, 
and their vestibules, wings, with perheps a clock tower, sive 
them a peculiar stamp. They are almost without exception mas- 
Sively tuilt throughout. 

varket halls, plant houses and buildings for industrial ex- 
hibitions are in great part structures of iron covered with 
glass with some portions in masonry. Their external appearance 
ty the materials employed tecomes very distinct and characteristic. 

90. Manufactories, mints, bronze foundries, abattoirs. 

All buildings in this class are usually massive, being chief- 
ly intended for utility. The uses of factories forbid a richer 
treatment as already stated, for the money should preferatly 
be expended to benefit the workmen, than for decorating the 
building. Yet it is worth trying to obtain the most pleasing 
appearance with a moderate expenditure. 

Mints ere royal or state buildings and deserve a certain 
distinction, even if modest tresiment is seldom exceeded. 

For abtattoirs, the deccration is generally limited to the 
entrance gates and the houses of the natchmen. Their purpose 
is well represented symbolically by heads cf animals. 

91. Faths, observatories, aquariums, zoological gardens. | 

Eath houses require large vestitules and waiting rooms. Ihey | 


sunken peters isi TEL pele esatsagos 
| ) Beoasastingge odt [fe bas ,etasissseet .esbeneu 
ra poten <eteexed ors aédd Quiwtotha sadsed ent ve etrt 
; Joaosometgeiend npg 792. ahabotios to ebaiti tie 
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| se m0 etoot bemob dairved bas. etoo1 tremeasd 1375 
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pata. to. sbotd taetettib ntsiwos yea eaebis2 LIsoryoloot 
26 9 Pot ets egb0f ‘eresioy odd tin yansde: sonsatas edt 
ot tusistael sasdte2 ead to @eogtag edt creotbut of bed 
wo? omy ap doin agteob bstaset wlanttivat ne et oiling 
Ghia bedetexot svotersd? .xetuiw rot anc01 SosoLons one 
wat oF awoot steteqos oved vyilswen eisgias sit s9t egoldsta 
y you? .betdesd yliasa gated ototsted? ,vetntn bane 
[ to ‘ahi Oon etevad ovisem edt of betiue entot Istooae 
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| : ots souttsmoe .acvitow Rotasoly, Ons wtlstoosg aztasd 
yhofondts ai bas ytotetd isivtsa at anotteslloo te 
pat ieee peteett od of a8 doide .snehts2 
; “oma 10 2HAI? Wf | 
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ferens? at ee) Sae Céstulh af egatitiod gnitesw. recta 
se ffiza om ,ebntd ovitoeqzeen siodt of noiteledat an [Low 
‘edt of anttelor nottetebiadcs ist aotgot to seties s 
pba © bolowh exe’ dotdw bas ,ytto 0 ytiivdsss of ovasa Jedd 
lea esq sd? outmsxo ow 20 .pettio to ecsld lo eftkd ont 
peteunr ,ctostte adit ets.beotton atconels sexit sar ,ysto 
apa to metfelf{ereg bas aortoseastai edt yi vamebues 
B edd so bweqed eazot saotr.esauod to edoofd sdl..benub 
: ee oar rete capaiate to mottsesistrt to 
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bas. ~zilstetsq naoth svedyyedt ;abeem Isool ast 2100 
“besseto qiwer 30 gattatxe gbdscils of Bakbto008 begolsy 
t need) ‘esd giro edt to asiz sdt #2 .eoktetrozene15 to 
ode aot ao) .39f03 B fo sebi0 add ts .wadaye bexit 6 
= ty odt of pacts robe stotot (Le a6 »eeolso & to 


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ba ee i ro | 
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' -241 
sometimes have conversation rooms, Grinking rooms, covered pro- 
menades, restaurants, and all the appurtenances required for 
life at the baths. Adjoining ther are bazaars, music pavilions, 
agllkinds of buildings for temporary occupancy, varks, places 
for games, etc. | 

Observatories are senerally structures like towers with sev- 
eral basement rooms and having domed roofs for protection of 
the optical instruments. They may be decorated ty all symbols 
relating to the heavens and astronomical research, with stat- 
ues and portraits of famous astronomers, etc. . 

Yoological gardens may contain different kinds of structures. 
The entrance gateway with the porters’ lodse are to Ge decora- 
ted te indicate the purpose of the garden. Restaurant for the 
public is an invitingly treated design with porticos for. summer 
and enclosed rooms for winter, therefore furnished with heat. 
statles for the anitals usually have separate rooms for summer 
and winter, therefore being partly heated. They should have s 
special forms suited to the native haunts and mode of life of 
the animals, and they afford the architect an opportunity to 
design vecuialr and pleasing wotives. Sometimes are cabinets 
of collections in natural history and in ethnolosy in these 
gardens, which are to be treated accordinsly. 

1. PLANS CE CITIES. 
a“. Ceneral. 

After treating tuildings in detail and then in seneral, as 
well es in relation to their resrective kinds, we still have 
a series of topics for consideration relating to the objects 
that serve to cteahtify a city, and which are included under 
the title of Flans of cities. If we examine the plan of any 
city, the first elements noticed are the streets, squares and 
gardens, by the intessection and parallelism of then it is pro- 
duced. The blocks of houses, whose forms depend on the angle 
of intersection of streets, fill the interspeces tetween these 
elerents. 

Flans of cities have been developed in historic times in ac- 
cord with local needs; they have grown naturally, and have de- 
veloped according to already existing or newly created means 
of transporteticn. On the plan of the city has teen formed -on 
a fixed system, at the order of a ruler, or for the settlement 
of a colony, and all future additions to the plan must accord 


teda: Pewteralead ott Gv hoieg eee Tetay2 edt | inte . 
}  onem esttto to anslq 9dt beate1eteb ts07 eovitow oF . 
} bowtot Lerdediso a 10 sonttg & to elfess sat .s atpntdel 
neo To. yntiaen al oriass 2 done -.6 yytin edt to ottags 
a yl{stenes .etesrt2 feqtocrsy owt to sottosarsiak adé 
| r sat ot BatbiO908 bermerse yhno at tio edt .o yesldos 
s beqolorvos at aely sd? .B yoottetroqeustt to conrl 
 taevena mange dotdw .s8fe edt to sa0iskbnoo aevia 
| emottos7£S sao’ ar gote 
. joo sas cabin detate to esqyt akatze> tives saedt word + 
9d? .zaottibace easdt to dstewss to sonstatrs edt vd bet 
eye efdbte edd at ,eoutt Jngtone ait aortio to auotisort2 
ot edt bsonsolint vilsitasees »So0t199 susce7 edt Lite 
snedt sts eettts to aneig to esqys Isgtoart, ad? sooty 
Wie apots .J yenely bDesvasaqea yllesiaso .s -gaatwollor 
maee> t5e1sa L[eyioniay ¢ guols Begnsiis easly betsggels .o 
B at beoe!z yviseomw ,saelg dose’ bh sesoaly ontioddgren ont 
Seyitt mo ansiq usluatt3iass .9 yentstduow vd bebacowise esl 
qine todd efoatade tedto to odel ,aistavon’e teen 
iz festaso. to aslgusxd senortosqid esaat of cotesst 
med .mogmod patlred .eaneil siil eettio ¢es23 ob bu 
ents ftoswegaetts [ertaso ¢itoitts s.esttto osset nf 
Beh oft bas ,avottisass doatteth to asiderego sda aot? 
iedentbrodus yd bsitibor wesd asd asitio ceadt to norensy 
bums osdzet2 .2 to Lerbedtesiodd dita soost¥ auc? sensit 
e708 ody difin ertaeo tealoorlisises 3 ylisarird een 
eeesivive Inozetith sdt vette ylad .[eas sdoned sdt Saoy 
Masbeocborg asiz tefvotto eicwt is ese 3et2 s beurot-h2d 9 
fe botsool .eeeloun 8 as agitio saetons bed ctlssd bas 
pano> st aise al .bebasqes ssitio edt doidw bavore 
mitaoo anil L[egfontty 6 ge0oed sad yrsdinetioflied) ds 
isda -gak ekted fo extaso sdf .tsorta 22063 odd atin eL3as 
Pedt baé .sxelsq blo od? qd ailie2 to ;ferbedise a6 ed 
baie < yoe772 ode to ebualet owt ao 2o1va90 owt utot Led 
aw eid? -ensly enots ao boaue72a 918 @etefo peidesW 014 
| cg ie esttito sesd? saqsmod sit déiw etrrovst 3 og 
to sao af abedansd ~B9itro axedow gnogd .asdsy ytio 
= at bus 3todeaeA ni agehy 3nof to aoigaaco bart ail 
dodsen seaheie ne paeres a18 ecalg aol 019063 ak 


’ Jigs 
fgets 
i 


242 
with the system, es for example in Carlsruhe, Hannheig or Chicago. 

The motives that determined the plans of cities were the fol- 
lowing:- a, the castle of a prince or a cathedral formed the 
centre of the city: kb, such a centre is wanting or consists of 
the intersection of two principal streets, senerally at right 
angles; c, the city is only arranged according to the chief 1 
lines of transportation; d, the plan is developed according to 
given conditions of the site, which perhaps prevent its exten- 

Sicn in one direction. 

From these result certain tyres of plans, which are complica- 
ted by the existence of several of these conditions. The fort- 
ifications of cities in ancient times, in the middle ages end 
until the recent period, essentially influenced the form of t 
vlan. The principal tyres of plans of cities are therefore the 
followingy- a, centrally arranged plans; bt, cross shaped plans; 

c, elongated plans arranged along a principal street connecting 

tno neighboring places; d, sack plans, mostly placed in a yval- 

ley surrounded by wonhtains; e¢, semicircular plans on rivers or 
next a mountain, lake or other otstacle, that only permits ex- 
tension in three directions. Examples of central plans are fou- 

nd in great cities like Vienna, Eerlin, tongon, Faris. Yet ev- 

in these cities a strictly central arrangement does not exist, 

from the operation of distinct conditions, and the general ex- 
pansion of these cities has been modified by subordinate condi- 
tions. Thus Vienna with the cathedral of S. Stephen as a centre, 
was originally a semicircular centre with the Lecpoldstadt be- | 
yond the Banute canal. Cnly after the different suburtan citi- . 
es had formed a ring was @ tnuly circular plan produced. Faris 
and Eerlin had ancient cities as a nucleus, lecated on islands 
around which the cities expanded. In Eerlin the connection wi- 
th Charlottenberg has become a principal line continued at an 
angle with the Kénig street. The centre of Faris is occupied 

by the cathedral; of Eerlin by the old palace, and the tenn h 
ball form twe centres on two islands of the Spree. 

‘All Wendish cities are arranged on cross plans. This was al- 
so a favorite with the Romans. These cities naturally have four 
city gates. Among modern cities, Mannheim is one of this kind. 

We find examples of long plans in Augsburg end in Freibtorg 
in Eaden. Long plans are developed from former market towns, 
whose wide principal streets are likewise market places, for 


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tetooos ont to noktopesstak 96% te detsool ,siniess tegae 
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moented slaeeiaeg 2 eoigvo9o ytio Isqioviay odd oftdw 
to ts Met ‘it saftas s3008 a6 ta fooststak dotdu .27s 
ui 8 wt etetxs fy dose ody to. sfgusre- okteitesostatio 4 
J : i atscasa. i peay ett sudd% wrot soderag jak uihaartbate 
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6 ylostt aso di tedt o@ yeltes> ont to enshte2 ode 
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fee aot jeer eaotzsy ai boonbowg o%s eusls tefodstotas? . 
1 rs ia od? .eisito ons setd .doteeM .noqmed .sng0lod steed 
pm oUt 3 bos blo sdt af A dotdw of isat ef sasit Yo args 
-yeoge7ty .esaeek .stoo’ ,emgolod ge aa .FO> .9tf  .etho 
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ptoseteint ota doidw .mebrotenA to seds sdtl. ateorde 
itso .adt bel{so .tafoy Lertosos s nott anttsibss ate 
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aebasot ed? .sotigso. yfeontay oF ogb sdastetie2; $o ono 
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to 9a: oa bas ,satwisdio Sdagsods sioerzsoous ard tsd ,mobhase 
3 odd. dese bas dévoe ,deen sdf no Sebmadxe gino aed 
efit al .grsbaned azedtton sti. aacimzet desg. das Jeo 
eveh adi of olosteio faxvtes @ emsot sist baelab us +o neeo0 
ieeette et-eclys% sianere 10%: .coatedt bsiscal eettia to teengqo 
va . ines atin oot Shge-agiaaengé: of. ti9:fetidused efi no 503 
ay > eat9sazte harktosano> 
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en ‘oat p kotfeciduos s ys beogboty ereniensly telagetts aaived ous 
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| St yeatsinvoe to slotiovs yi isdto eds a0 ,sse sad 


ea eee 


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243 
exemple at T8lz in upper Eavaria and in the city of Steyr in 
upper Austria, located at the intersection of two mountain val- 
leys. In the last place ate two suburts named after the rivers, 
while the principal city occupies a peninsula between the riv- 
ers, which intersect at an acute angle. 

‘A characteristic example of the sack plan exists in Stuttgart, 
developed inoborshoe form about its principal streets and hen- 
med in on three sides by the monbtains and on the fourth by t 
the sardens of the castle, so that it can freely extend only 
along the valley of the Neckar and around the castle gardens. 

Semicirtular clans are produced in varicus ways, for example 
Mentz, Cologne, Kampen, Munich, Linz and others. The general 
tyre of these is that in which A is the old and E the modern 
city, Fis. 403, as at Cologne, Mentz, Kampen, Prague, and many 
other cities cf medium size. If the cities become too large, 
the old and new cities form a whole as at Vienna, Frague, Dres- 
den, Florence, Rome, etc. 

Two principel lines of transportation, one being parallel to 
the river, intersect toth city and its suburbs. If a tributary 
enters the main river at right angles es at Coblenz, Fassau, 
Amsterdam, two suturts EF and 6B’ are usually formed outside the 
old city, or the tlan of the city is grouped in zones or rings 
streets like that of Amsterdam, which are intersected by stre- 
ets radiating from a central point, called the cathedral rlace 
in Amsterdam. To the last group of plans belongs the fan-like 
one of Carlsruhe due to princely caprice. The founder of the 
city of Carlsruhe intended the net of radial streets from the 
chateau should form a complete circle and surround the castle 
garden, but his successors thought otherwise, and so the city 
bas only extended on the west, south and east, the garden, for- 
est and park forming its northern toundary. In like manner the 
ocean or an inland lake forms a natural otstacle to the devel- 
opment of cities located thereon. For example Naples is erran- 
sed on its teautiful sulf in semicircular form with radial and 
connecting streets. 

‘All cities that cannot te placed in one of the given classes 
and having irregular plens were produced by a combination of 
the given conditicns:- thus Cenoa is hemmed in on one side by 
the sea, on the other ty a circle of mountains; it therefore 


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244 
has a principal street encircling the harbor and many ascending 
hilly streets. Rowe was also more or less influenced by its se- 


ven hills; cities like Ferusia, Eersgano and others have an ele- . 


vated urper city and a low-lying lower city; Siena, Zurich, §S 
Stuttgart, Eaden-baden, etc., extend up the surrounding hills. 
Special otstacles also hinder the expansion of a city in vari- 
ous directions, as the Eois de EFoulogne in Faris, the Thier- 
garten in Ferlin, at Freiberg in Faden and similarly situated 
cities, the mountain at whose foot they originated. 

Tt is only necessary to examine a volume of Faedeker’s suides 
telrecognize that the nucleus of most old German cities consi- 
sts of a purposeless confusion of alleys hardly belonging to 
any type of tlan mentioned; this is very simply explained, if 
we remember that the inhabitants necessarily built the fortif- 
ications as compactly as possible, and the streets or alleys 
were arranged to satisfy the most pressing needs. uch larger. 
building sites were possessed by churches and monasteries, wh- 
ich determined the paan of communications. Convenience requir- 
ed rectangular blocks of houses in arranging plans of towns 4 
and usually soverened the division of plans of cities. Only af- 
the ecnoval of fortifications, when the city coudd expend bey 
ond its old toundaries, was the centrel plan developed in most 
cases, and a ring street took the place of the fortifications, 
which were changed into asgreeatle promenades in many Cérman 
cities, even forming the principal street in Vienna, on which 
are located most public tuildings and finest private houses. 

The entire esthetic character of the city essentially der- 
ends of its forn of clan, whether rectangular or triangular 
blocks were adopted. Rectengular blocks are most convenient 
for buildings, since they only produce houses with rectangular 
plans; still if the system is consistently developed, the city 
assumes @ monotonous and dreary character. Iriansles with too 
acute angles should be av@ided, since acute-ansgled corner hou- 
ses seldom make a good plan possible. 

Cities arranged on the rectansular syster like Mannheim and 
Turin, or parts of cities arranged in the same way like the 
‘quarter around the Cens d’Armes market in Eerlin have the dis- 
advantage, thet much time is lost, if one desires to so fhom 
a to d in Fig. 405, since he must travel the distance ec + cd, 
it being inmaterial whether the dotted line is followed or any 


_ <n  —— ———EES  — 


t oF bonerod ‘ath ateotde et anole semmoo aliisaoy isdso 
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Dbetasso setito to noteatgxs*edt mort iiuess [Lin -ouea 
neil art 2? .0 .D .F (A 191 sbetsoers ylisnotts: th: easly 
OF berkesd ef ti doida yasoely sartodngisn svit 
pepubets ot geod od ‘ned? [lfe t1 .aueloon 3 a6-<gtts.6 
Fatal: tasi9lti6 sat of moktsotaserce to asati Leqio 
} Ok 34 ST watspite goer vi eteesss faqioaiea. ‘ee5ad gai 
‘*  betsonutt ed vex esotsrev edd ,ealgne duos biovg at 
7 fatbor to eaotdecetetak sd¢ #6 bsgasux8 94 goxeupe off 

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ton ob dorix .,enotfeenp) recto bes att sseanoaib 
eggs oivedies adi eoaneitnt goad #6 FJ90K9 ,nokTetsdienss 
eles eetio = to 
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go ebnoyed .tostidors oft qd neds sevrz od ofuode dotda 

pfoiaesisep tedy to sofoersid sd no oes osly saitnas odt 

MOAB) you S00 ,olodn edt 20 sedoetts odt yd boscoarsint: ytts 

pod \I -:settio to aszsq7 edd to eboid (sgéoutas sosct dara 
| pred -{eivdegbst ,€ setedss00 soasbises .&. .ersdis99 sea 

ae eid to 08 «9 no detste efissl> y1ow esd totetonons 
Y eievoutea od¢ Yo 1sfostedo odt dotdn uebag eaaots tbeeo 
a ued? aebteaaoo vitsiad Iisde of ssaad? 
i pieveloun od sekguooo gidsietesy istass0: eesadewd edt ; 
.%o tease odd o1sds sbdISq. 807. btenot ebssixs bas _ytio 
1071 Eines sad3 es {low es .daemnqeve? wire eat bas eoldsatas 

Wet etivest soasd! .havot of of e186 scotiesivact otLigg. das 
9a . earte [sqfoukaq esocgitcos teds .wel bivow [sosoukay 
Sbis teivo s190 ,2sottto ssemteed bas agods tot bexgeds, tod 
Pods i. -dtow feodostlogat bag; sonsbiapz x0t 3aks3. ateoste 
fige teed od ayowls [fiw, ¢tt> eat to ancktx07] Lacnstce al. 
poitsolaunnoo Yo ensax..sd? ti sopesdiess, tetted: gat. os 
of{y sds bas eotia sdgeamio,edd sonia ,203-O8160, yLr94 
is rq Lftw adte) avevesw sdf .ba09 ofdd of deel stil [2107 
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ant adhe ef odsat olselodn One Sekuptosisasi - 

serosa eth anata [shoitizas bas. farvten of sono7ste7 


245 
other possible course along the streets ifs pursued to reach 
the roint d. In case of a fan-like plan like that of Carlsruhe, 
acute and obtuse angles of different degrees are produced. The 
same will result from the expansion of cities carried out by 
plans if rationally executed. Let A, E, C, LD, Ein Fig. 406 be 
five neighboring places, which it is desired to connect with 
a city as a nucleus. It will then be best to arranse five prin- 
cipal lines of communication to the different places, connect- 
ing these principal streets by ring streets. It it is desired 
to avoid acute angles, the vertices may be truncated and pub- 
lic squares be arranged at the intersections of radial and cr- 
oss streets, so that this again recurs to the block system. E 
Fauneister in his work on Extensions of cities, exhaustively 
discusses this and other ouestions, which do not require our . 
consideration, except as they influence the esthétic appearance 
of a city. 

The external appearance of streets and squares, the character 
which should be given them by the architect, tepends on both 
the entire plan and on the character of that quarter of the 1. 
city intersected by the streets. On the whole, one may distin- 
guish three principal kinds of the parts of cities:- 1, busin- 
ess quarters, 2, residence quarters; 3, industrial quarters. 
Eaumeister hes very cleerly stated on ¢. 80 of bis work the 
conditions under which the character of the streets result fron 
these. We shall tkriefly consider then. 

The ctugsiness quarter preferably occupies the nucleus of the 
city and extends toward the parts, where the seat of the admin- 
istration and the city government, as well as the rost inport- 
ant public instrtutions are to te found. Thence results the 
crincivai ground law, that contiguous principal streets are 
best adapted for shops and business offices, more quiet side 
streets being for residence and intellectual work. 

The external portions of the city will always be best suited 
to the better residences if the means of communication are pro- 
perly cared for, since the cheapbr sites and the pleasure of a 
rural life lead to this end. The western side will preferably 
be occupied by the villa ouarter on account of the prevailing 
western winds, affording the curest air. 

Manufacturing and wholsale trade is preferatly iaeitan With 

reference to natural and artificial transportation. Hertors, 


to nottscof ods to stimeo end emtusese8 axovis bse alnuss 
jo 91 ak basi oft to oulev toffete odd ,eesntsod efseolode 
$ 59992 stom to been edt es Lfow as etro edt to enateso7 
fs feqnoo ,foktectaunr0> to sentf sess odd. to exsatsen 
‘edd Yo etridedvo od no wsdtsop¢ antantostucsm 9dt to mots 
Pen 26 .ncode atte betosqaos elteou ,eeittenbdut reste yisd 
7 gat tovo Setetissa sas (Leremss ai*sbort [isiet'sdt 
a NES MOR or eeFoRste 6 
90 # fot yifeasaes (ftw ett & *eatooste edt orotetedt s. 
39738 tilsromer eietosistio sisdtidotds dite esa¢t 
49 ,aoidsoiaunwoa to senkl atem ,sisorte f{srtocie¢g 
ots ve eds to tueq 8 Qntbiv£d 16 rom10l sit. Qnitosrnoo © 
x2 dont exe vod! sayeli{s worsen gfilentt ome .2oeu0d to eds 
BS ,noitsotnomso> to etsorte .etse1te ooelsy ,etoamte ef 
| ) opis ots efeoste [eyiontig ed? .t00g-90t ast etoatia 
“weds no seteob os astia getbitad bas .sotteotnsna09 te 
to oso teod edt sf5n-of.s505d. petse rte obra sat ao 
gt esftote @ ao b sd. 0% Bkathlind sdt esireost vids 
on s9stod ot yd betgnoso elisido ef toot bayoTe od? 
§ adverse isgtoaksy sasdt ,saokstoaco.[ss0l ot gakSr9004 
tat Pte eaten sit to tanc0ss aD .2eecF to awot 1g9ot 10 owt 
mysters tow ose afsotte Lextomt7y svedt .tesqwe sit et bas 
eeeiietne1 10? yltetdo ore aseuad: 242. .ysotooe teed add ud 
08d yldoin vd atuemed edéisem fosists ot yit e1enwo ated? 
| gt to eau tesd odd -ofstvod -zs6u0 nt stoteted? .esdsane? 
afds avods ,yiote ontaessem 6 o§aetT1e Of TeyeTy ef Jf 
gobiees elgate 6 yleo antaistaos yrote tasd edt bsosly 
to 1500.00? .ytote doso ak eteli. cad ots syods teen 
eat to seo so.enteessen 58% asdties yrs050 tfeomta ase 
b9eG) yldots edt to ogyt odd eetenterro: sw: stds, ol watslt 
pPeerta anid eat ao saon? od fl wtust 20% ssevod Istisie7 
+. Ne ine: of etoowse isdto bas tensheiol .ssbatd edt co .sane 
alee ee. seayns to eselo vested sdt. to tetosrsado garftavesy od? 
-ofei dtix arobain yed to see sdf ot etetesoo atiusdiak [etnec 


oe. 


yiota bavo1d ods svode asogemme> wobatw ysdiedt eelyaszs 
pore et eviton aid? .ytote r9qym edt woled ynoolsd © 2s abas 

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[feue s gcturot .yrose smoweeed odf otnt abastre ylisves wobnin 
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* Ma Pte 


ere. . 


ecg ol .comzoo-daou sius¢dofde to sagys abetiss .zeing 


246 
canals and rivers determine the centre of the location ef the 
wholesale business, the srailer value of the land in the outer 
portions of the city as well as the need of more space and the 
nearness of the sreat lines of communication, compel the loca- 
tion cf the manufacturing quarter on the outskirts of the city. 
Cnly minor industries, wostly connected with shops, as well as 
the retail trade in general, are scattered over the entire city. 
‘b. Streets. 

Therefore the streets €6f a city will generally follow certein 
tyres with which their characters generally agree. They are p 
principel streets, main lines of communication, or side streets, 
connecting the foruer or dividing a pert of the city into blo- 
cks of houses, and finally narrow alleys. They are further vil- 
la streets, palace streets, streets of communication, and the 
streets for the poor. The principal streets are also main lines 
of communication, and building sites are dearer on them than 
on the side streets; hence to make the best use of the ground, 
this requires the buildings to te 4 or 5 stories in height. 

The ground floor is chiefly occupied by the better warehouses. 
According to local conditions, these princiral streets have 
tae or four rows of trees. On account of the noise of carriages 

and in the street, these principal streets ere not preferred 
by the best society. The houses are chiefly for rental, and t 
their owners try to attract wealthy tenants by richly decorated 
facades. Therefore in order to make the best use of the capital, 
it is cvroper to arrange a mezzanine story, above this being pf 
Claced the test story containing only a single residence, then 
next above are two flats in each story. The owner of the house 
can himself occupy either the mezzanine or one of the upper 
flats. In this way originates the type of the richly decorated 
valatial houses for rent, like those on the Ring street in Vi- 
enna, on the Linden, Fotsdamer and other streets in Ferlin. 
The prevailing character of the better class of houses for 
rental in Eerlin consists in the use of bay windors with btalc- 
onies, certain types of which are most common. In the simplest 
examples the bay window commences above the ground story and 
ends as 2a balcony below the uprer story. This motive is more 
richly developed ty verendahs at the sides, so that the bay 
window usually extends into the basement story, forming a small 
entrance hall. In double houses, that are afvorites in Eerlin, 


b Sed200a00 828 Gtod bas jwobatw yed esi asd savod doss 
q sasttots [eevee ai eove 20 .esinoolsd qd yxote sasd 
seni etashive as. esitote tesusasd ad? at sonsmace 
vesatf tootte edt mort déed ai sacod odt sasde be 
109 banot 916 atoorte eoeisy tedt wobloe ai st © 
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atl odt to offs bes sansiV at teerle guid edt to sasq A 
pasdto. mort wsttrbh sead? .eved denokinsy 94 ysa aiizs7 
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i ntbLiud adt to rehensn sdt fo ascttto oft as Ilan a6 
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we n oitt yetseits sosisa beffed 94 yite3077 yex,sogs2 ot 
t eeoktio sktsf aadfo Ons efisi ai atserte 
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oneqgo09 {sac oft qi Gosttetostsdo yltoito o1s .aet 
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Sema? tot agcthited tadztd yd berebtod os atsetts Isto 
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veg oi badasnoett stow ous ,etsoita sdt ni: setom yd bet 
ii w sat to tmont nk eaobts§ sd? .ooitessee7 rot gnidien 
pe eed wort we02 94 yluo aso esiliv edi ssid ,g29b ce aadto 
deeb To constss2qe odd 28d teexte sittas edd bas ,esdsh a9 
9fq ,sedotegq bsetilsate ,2cortre7 cobte) .41909 8. at 
eats .290neatae rledd bes ellen sebteg wol 10 esanst 
tatootte to asayd seed? squste isifuess 8 atcotts sliiv 
sI to oto bortm sts dad .xttasg ot tuo bsitss2 nob . 
od doss ototed aebiss [feme s af etadd .asitis wasn 
wo ck bas ;atsofd ak titad exe yodt tk asva ,taarte 
-afofo .2qoda dviw etsatetie [stast tot asesod Ona asosley 
vn Sot oct to HotdI93 aigtese edv of es ,egafoliad orliag 
t tooite 19aksgisg to gasy/atedeon sdt at ,otf1s3 ai tes 
bed sto dzsq destese €dF sdotaoli of seoste astftaixs! oi a0 
owbiitn sobideg vi betqao9o ylorksas seonls si doing oi tasits 
estas 2 «eiigaaden jogo. sacastesuaxis sasde tod wot ,egat 
vos - eint todt sot cies as st eyerls [Lin sise1te edt to retsetsdo 
Sova — siedd vqW290/oF soteny eyane [itw yitisew sdP. .adeszi 
a edt setea eudd bas 29kltast ono itedt yfao ddin asa 
ij ites ascateg 08 tel ad Lfte. fotdy ,30ifLowd dstaez set 


247 
each house has its bay window, and both are connected in the 
best story ty balconies, or even in several stories. Eays that 
commence in the tasement stories can evidently only be arrang- 
ed where the house is batk from the street line. 

It is seldom that palace streets are found consisting only 
of palaces of princes and nobles, also of public buildings. 

A part of the Ring street in Vienna and also of the Linden in 
Eerlin may be mentioned here. These differ from other streets 
in that the basement story exclusively contains living rooms 
as well as the offices of the manager of the building. The 
Heerengracht in Amsterdam, a part of Via Ealbi and Via Nuova 
in Genoa,may properly be called palace streets, like many 
streets in Faris and other large cities. 

Villa streets are found in most plans for extension of cit- 
ies, are chiefly characterized by the usual occupancy of the 
villas by a single family only, and it therefore contains only 
2 tasement and a first story, alse it is detached and surround- 
ed ty a garden. Therefore while thespreviously mentioned prin- 
cipal streets are bordered by higher buildings for rental, the 
villa streets are mostly low, quiet and inviting, little affec- 
ted by noise in the streets, and more frequented by persons w 
walking for recreation. The gardens in front of the vallas are 
often so deer, that the villas can only ce seen from the gard- 
en gates, and the entire street has the appearance of a street 
in a vark. Carden porticos, trellised porches, pleasing garden 
fences or low garden walls and their entrances, ectc., sive the 
villa streets a peculiar stamp. These types of streets are sel- 
dom carried out in purity, but are mixed wore or less, thus in 
many cities, there is a small garden before each house in as 
street, even if they are built in blocks; and in other streets, 
calaces and houses for rental alternate with shops, hotels and 
cutlic buildings, as in the western portion of the Linden str- 
cet ‘in Eerlin, in the western part of feipziger street there, 
and in Meximilian street in Munich. The easterp part. ocf-Ludwis 
street in Kunich is almost entirely occupied by public build- 
ings, etc. Eut where circumstances develop naturally, 2 typical 
character of the streets will always te an ain for their inheb- 
itants. The wealthy will always prefer to occupy their own hou- 
ses with only their own families, and thus prefer the villa tp 
the rented dwelling, which will be left to persons possessing 


halls eae Aird! Or Riley MT eB ibs 
* ype ay, event Bi: mt 
ee ae 
ito. bas rin: gre rift aietonts cerulie aook 
 qtio teddvons (ot Lsvoues soten isctteyases. @noin ,sroetss 
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sieloraane *‘etetias as .etelLisasoo yvttt yoOt<bed1su0 « 
Bude smsbretaxt ,nobued ;pite? at es ssitio sodte 
t i evbepizecs ne to counoa ytov @ boodrnr er gf", .9%9 
app {feng ouodw ,9e808 ano eid eun2D0 of asm dose 
Protea [stevee of awoot guivil te tuseagnetye edt tot aoe 
quooo seel 19 stow od [fiw evyelis bas etaeare Sbs3.' 
osb Letstostinots tedt ov .moitsi2 sascow to anesitis 
09 vino [fin yott bes ,bettiwo od Mfin aaauad. odd to 
)  xteties yltetdo totds .dast towel to snoivsool azeck 
1 soe stestte Seed? .utcediiedet sav to stff yess ent to 
© yao bas 100g ot xd botidedat eteette odd. of easnzet 
be pesets need eed di Gomit Sag0ed at .eaeto sowed sit ed 
si b evitoszisea vi ates 28ND TIs97) Bkedt aotted of bad 
9 ,folysoruvareo 10? Stestie ots ets of .sendto#w ot 
weemoo dolndw ebabflews net dvix soeels eaontend ani 
szotoedidows atersbhox s dtiw totsecsdio mxotiva 8 ore 
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aster ttost. dofdw .esen0ni ody To.1897% soy yaoi. eons 
ptesd ol .seuodersn sd Odat [evovet akedh bes.a5s08 
metant vd Setevele ef atesaes fanso seeds to: satocrsds 
pata socisz ot soldetossd to dost stoigess ngeaart azete 
pods ed meer viswitce Jeorls ga i909: THostbastaDa. oat 
eiSlsen To goeTos 
vifed soda, sina qs sibihianenns a3 Ufitw eboea dtpois, 
pe edit .beegs agit sicu b3isbiemoo.ets aeos 


; y “43 


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de danoidt ,etesits edd to staomoved set sedou osyne mis 
sup od? .ysun 8 tevo agoiolind ous odo beftaso ove sdood 
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me doom c2 bebtovs 24.teww bakbecle: seodotostusen yA loi | 


248 
less wealth, such as wilitary officers, officials and other r 
persons, whose occupation makes rewoval to another city possi- 
ble. Many cities have quarters cvreferred by persons pursuing 
eertain occurations; thus men speak of a prefessors’ querter,. 
a guarted for frivy councillors, an artists’ quarter, etc. In 
other cities as in Faris, London, Amsterdam, Hamburs, Danzig, 
etc., it is indeed a very common or an exclusive custom for 
each man to occury his own hosse, whose small size is the rea- 
son for the arrangement of living rooms in several stories. 

Side streets and alleys will te more or less occupied by 
citizens of modest station, so that architectural decoration 
of the houses will te omitted, and they will only contain bus- 
iness locations of lower rank, which chiefly satisfy the needs 
of the daily life of the inhabitants. These streets descend by 
degress to the streets inhabited by the poor, and only occupied 
by the lower class. In recent times it has been rightly attemp- 
ted to tetter these dreary quarters ty attractive dwellings f 
for workmen. There are streets for communication, only contain- 
ing business places with few dwellings which consequently ass- ° 
ume a uniform character with a moderate architectural treatme- 
nt, although the number of persons passing along them may be 
very great, as in portions of the boulevards of Faris. Allied: 
to these are the canal streets like those of English and Dutch 
cities, and of Hamburg, almost entirely occupied by warehouses. 
Usually a navigatle canal lies between two streets or close to 
a single street, as in must Dutch cities, less frequentln ext- 
ends along the rear of the houses, which facilitates unloading 
goods and their renoval into the warehouse. In Ansterdam the 
character of these canal streets is elevated by intermediate 
steps from an absolute lack of decoration to palace streets, 
the Heerengracht being almost entirely occupied by the. arist- 
ccracy of wealth. 

Host goods will be transported by canals when bulk and chegr- 
ness are considered wore than speed, like raw materials and 
bulky wanufactoress reloading must be avoided as much af foss- 
ible Utrecht is wost favorably situated, as most of its canal 
streets have canals at sucth e low level, thet cellars are 
arrenged under the pavements cf the streets, through which 
goods are carried into the buildings over @ quay. The queys 
are Clanted with trees, whose fdliage commences at about the 


ipa Hid suk ed | ok 


ae 


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moitose ody eved asdt etoorts eal .daemsveq sdt To Level 
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ghavand® 35. 

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i af fanottgsoxe et [avesd eisda esttio ot asivibaool 
tefuoté1sy ts .& sarootte to ancitosareint .t -:exe contd 
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(fevett to seeetont ne od Setaqsos: ad team 3b. yhfo 
e{ovett 2estedus yao bas veoh Oos e8ed sare sual 

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249 
level of the pavement. The streets then have the section shown in 
in Fig. 407, which gives a very peculiar arrance to Utrecht. 

Venice is often improplerly compared to Amsterdam, but the 
canals do not form lines of transportation for goods, but for 
persons, since the principal facades of palaces and houses lie 
on the canals, their rear being toward the streets. The sener- 
al aprearance of the Crand canal rises to that of a palace ca- 
nal in wany places. all alleyu in Venice are narrow, so that 
no carriages of any kind are used there. Venice and Amsterdan 
therefore form the must reculiar contrast. ‘Ihe principal ftoi- 
ats to be considered from an esthetic point in enlarging the . 
plan of a city, Eaumeister comprises in these laws; symmetry 
of groups of buildings, picturesque perspective of streets. 
and squares, well chosen points of view, attractive arrange- 
ment of the masses of buildings. 

63 Souares: 

These ere intended to efford space for crowds of men in 
those parts of the city where travel is very sreat at certain 
hours. They have the further advantage of aiding a good circt- 
lation of air, and are the natural ventilators of cities. They 
also pleasantly interrupt the monotony of the connected stree- 
ts, and add much to the picturesque character of a city. In 
earlier cities, hemmed in by fortifications, squares were fre- 
‘quently obtained after the removal of the fortifications by 
tearing down churches and monasteries. 

Localities in cities where travel is exceptionally sreat at 
times are:- 1, intersections of streets; 2, at particular tuil- 
dings. Since the square is not a luxury but a necessity in a 
city, it must be adapted to an increase of travel; squares too 
large cause heat and dust and may embarras travel. 

1. Squares neer churches. Cn account of filling and emptying 
a church at the tesginning and end of divine service, as well 
as for processions in case of Catholic churches, cathedrals a 
and churches usually need squares of considerable extent. The 
square is usually located at the western end of the church, so 
that the principal facade forms the terminal axis of the square. 
In other cases the square also extends along the south side ( 
(Fig. 408 a), as at Regensburg and Strasburg cathedrals. In yet 
others it also extends along the sides, leaving but an alley 
behind the choir (Fig. 408 b), as at Freiberg, or the church is 


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250 
entirely isolated. 

Older fortified cities were frequently compelled to surround 
the church on three sides with houses or it was built up on 
all sides, which incluenced the plen (Fig. 408, c,d). Or the 
proximity of an existing cathedral allowed the architect to 
give an isolated church an abnormal form, like the Liebfrauen 
churches of Treves and Mentz. Ihe location of a church on a: 
hill generally affected the arrangement of its square. The 
largest and finest church square is that before S. Feter at 
Rome. 

2. Castle souares. Most princely castles required a castle 
square for military reviews. Hence the castle square is in most 
cases the richest and most stately in its decoration, of all 
in the city, and more so if other royal buildings, theatres, 
museums and libraries are located around it. 

32. Squeres before town halls are frequently used as markets 
on certain days. lown halls represent the people and therefore 
usually pleced near squares of large size, where citizens could 
assemtle on special occasions. State buildings for officials, 
barracks, higher educational institutions, post offices and 
prisons seldom require squeres, though generally built near 
them to decorate the squares. Euildings for so¢ieties, police 
stations, fire engine houses, schools, laundries and baths, 
abattoirs, market halls, industrial halls, cemeteries, etc. 
generally reouire squares or should be adjacent to then. 

Eaumeister Sives in his work a series of the most important 
types of plans of squares, which may be briefly indicated. 

1. Four ssreets meet with acute and obtuse angles (Fig. 409, 
4,2,2). Ihe vertices are truncated obtaining eisht obtuse ang- 
led buildings are obtained as at 1. In No. 2 the pairs of cor- 
ner buildings are similar with two rectangular ones, while in 
no. 3, adjusting the irregularity of intersection of two stre- 
cts with a third at different angles, there are two rectangular 
and four with different angles. If the tiocks of houses are ar- 
ranged on the rectangular systen, severel different cases may 
occur. Ze Two opposite blocks of houses are shortened (4), or 
two streets intersect and angles are truncated (5), or lastly 
the square lies tetween the extensions of two streets (€). 

Combinations of toth arrangements when streets intessect at 
right, acute and obtuse angles, sive the arrangement Ro. 7, as 


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251 
well as & to 12 (Fig. 409). If several principal lines extend 
through it as in the last five exemples, the square is peculi- 
arly adapted for decoration by means ef buildings, fountains, 
gardens, etc. An enlargement of a continuous street on one or 
toth sides is admissitle at those points where travel increas- 
es, according to sketches 13 and 14 (Fig. 409), as in Leirpzig- 
er and Fariser streets in Eerlin. 

Monuments, fountains and gardens, porticos with seats, are 
the wost teautiful decoretions for squares, with lamp posits f 
for lighting by gas and electricity. Cerdens are peculiarly 
adapted for the decoration of squares; lawns, shrubttery and 
trees heighten the picturesque character of the squares and 
afford for the eye a beneficial change from the turmoil of the 
city. Still, these designs should not injure the aprearance of 
the tuildings, and their height and extent should be suitably 
limited. It is proper to conceal urinals by shrubbery. 

Enclosed gardens or the so-called parks are not well adapted 
for open squares. They are sometimes so arrenged as to form t 
the central point of a group of buildings, which adjoin the s 
street on but one side, but abut on the four inner sides of t 
the park (Fig. 410). Ibis produces inviting and quiet residen- 
ces that may te very near the principal streets, though rero- 
ved from their noise. 

Vonuments, fountains, ponds, seats, kiosks and beds of flow- 
ers serve to ornament such squares. To then which are sometimes 
called gardens, ty which travel should never be obstructed, al- 
so telong larger squares covered by égardens or plantations of 
trees, like the Hofgarten in Munich, the Schloss Flatz in Carls- 
ruhe, Lustgarten in Eerlin, Champs Elysees in Faris, étc. Sral- 
ler and wore numerous squares are preferatle to a few larse 
ones in any city. 

d. Cardens. 

Many cities have large parks and palace gardens in their sub- 
urts, like the Frater in Vienne, Thiergarten in Eerlin, Fois 
de Eoulogne in Faris, English Carden in Munich, Schloss Carden 
at Stutterrt, Carlsruhe, Darmstadt, etc. 

When such gardens or parks exist naturally or even artifici- 
ally, they should be cared for and beanutified as much as foss- 
ible. They are the principal places of recreation for the city, 


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252 

gometimes containing pretty todies of water, conds acd streams, 
and they are much visited on certain days in summer on account 
of wilitary music, and their borders are favorite places for 
restaurants and places of amusement. Many cities must be satis- 
fied with promenades, arranged on the site of the ancient for- 
tifications, for the lack of such gardens; this is the case in 
most cities in Holland, of which only Amsterdam, Baarlem and 
Hague have their notle parks. Ancient ceneteries no longer used 
for burials are sometimes transformed into tarks. Flaces for 
games Bhould te arranged in cities as well as botanical and z 
zoological gardens, baths, places of amusement with palm gard- 
ens on the model of the calm garden at Frankfort, Flora at Co- 
logne, and that of Charlottenburg. One should further never n 
neglect to arrange seats in gardens end squares, as uell as ¢ 
cvorticos, where opportunity offers, that persons may shelter 
in case of rain and way promenade. Cnly monuments should not 
have seats near them, tecause these only afford too ready OCF- 
cortunity for defacing the monument. 

U. WELLS AND FOUNTAINS. 

Excert monuments, the most beautiful end suitable decorations 
of squares are wells and fountains. Markets require cleanliness 
and therefore fountains, which are now merely hydrants with 1 
large tanks, their centres occupied by a pedestal supporting 
a large shell, e canopy or a statue or group of statues, or a 
structure like a tower like the Schéne Erunnen at Nuremburg. 
The warket fountain is a running fountain. There are several 
other tyres of wells or fountains:- 1, the well, well house, 
enclosed spring. 2, the running fountain; 3, spring wells and 
fountains: 4, cascades and water decorations. 

1. Cistern wells are vertical and usually round shafts sunk 
to the water level, sometimes to a depth of several hundred f 
feet. Furnished with a curb at tor with sowe arrangement for 
raising the water, merely a bucket and chain for wells of small 
depth. The well curb must te formed so that the full bucket @ 
gay be set on it, and its exterior may te ornamented ty reliefs. 
The finest exaurles of such curbs are the bronze curbs in the 
court of the Coge’s palace in Venice, that are circular inter- 
nally and octagonal externally. 

fhe shaft of the well itself is even treated esthetically in 


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253 
some cases, sometimes as a winding stairs with open well in t 
the lower part of it beins a basin for collecting the water. 
Such a well telonging to tbe mediaeval period and of square 
section is the so-called Jew’s bath in Friedberg in Taunus, 
and we have an example from the Renaissance period ‘in the well 
of Antonio Sangallo the Younger at Orvieto, tegun after 1525. 
The latter is of circular section. 

Tn tost cases the tucket is suspended ty a chain that runs 
over a pulley. The pulley itself must te supported in any suit- 
able manner, and a series of motives are thus produced which 
have been executed in many rlaces. Sauvageot gives a beautiful 
well with two buckets, one supplying the garden of a monastery, 
the other a street at a lower level.(Fig. 411). Iwo piers of 
different heights suprort a horizontal stone team strengthened 
by decorative additions at the middle, to which the pully is 
fastened. Over the piers free terminals are added as decorati- 
ons of the stone bean. Wells of this kind are not infrequent 
in the cloisters of Italian monasteries. They are usually rla- 
ced at the centre and are elevated on several steps. Fut they 
tay also te attached to a wall into which the end of the beam 
is tuilt, the other end teing supported by a column (Fig. 412). 
This motive way te tumned to good ecconnt by making the bear 
quite long, arranging that one can pass around the well (Fig. 
413). It will then be advisable to place a cortel between the 
bean and its suprorting pillar, which may be formed in various 
ways. If the well is distant from the wall, the stone beam may 
be replaced by an iron team, then let into the tlock that sup- 
vorts the pulley. A very graceful late Cothic well of this kind 
stands in the court of the Gymnasium behind the choir of the 
cathedral in Strasburs. 

A further developrent of the well is produced ty placing a 
strong covering slab above three or wore piers supporting the 
culley. The centre cof the covering slab may te strengthened, 
which originates the motive of distinguishing this centre by 
decorative additions, as well as ornaments placed above the 
viers, statues and ornaments; the German Renaissance has left 


tany such wells, the motive being improved ty wrought iron work. 


This motive of the canopy well is developed in larger designs 


of similar character in a small polygonal structure. (Fis. #14). 


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An example, though wore simple than the one shown, is found 
near the church ‘in Veere in Botland; where the rainwater is c 
collected on the roof of the church, led in a channel E that 
runs around the cistern, the impurities being deposited in it, 
while the clarified water flows into the collecting basin ty 
openings filled with bricks set near each other; thus only the 
water can pass through the slits as shown in Fig. 415. ihe ch- 
annel E and tank A way te accessitle by steps. The pulley for 
the bucket chain is supported from the keystone of the vault. 
In very deep wells the weight of the chain and the buckets is 
too great for the chain to te simply drawn up ty hand; in such 
cases as in derricks, a windlass is substituted for the pulley, 
to which the chain is fastened, and this is supported ty two 
tearings. A wheel is attacked to the axle, which is then turned 
by toth hands, while the chain is wound on the axle. A ratchet 
prevents the wheel froz slipping out of the hands. Then the 
reising of water by machinery requires progection ty a roof, 
so that iron parts may te as little as possitle exposed to rust. 
The whole design of the cistern is then detached and covered 
by a building, or is placed in a niche of the wall and covered 
by a protecting rcof. 

Well houses are usually employed where a srrins is treated 
like a well and is flaced under a roof. The spring is then 
enclosed to serve for drinking, so that the surplus water is 
removed. Mineral springs in particular require attention to be 
devoted to toth these points. In cities like Eaden-EFaden, where 
naturally hot water is obtained in such ‘quantities as toe be u 
used for econombcal curposes as well as for drinking and baths, 
cutlic fountains are usually arranged as niches in the walls, 
and the outlets for water are closed ty stopcocks. Special dr- 
inking halls are generally planned where the water is drunk. 

Other designs for fountains are arranged like small open b 
buildings, where the water runs from one basin into another 1 
lower one, then into a third, etc., so as to remove all vesti- 
ges of impurity. Such fountains are vaulted with open rooms at 
one side, telong to the wediaeval perior, and still exist in 
several Italian cities, as in Siena. A few similar springs hou- 
ses also remain in Cermany and France. 

Larger designs for springs also consist of an oren tasin with 


e to dipift ud! Level bawasy vadgid add wort ntead 
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255 
a chnnel for rewoving surplus water, and one descends to the 
tasin from the higher ground level tn a flight of steps. A fine 
example of such a design is afforded ty Conauschingen in its 
so-called source of the Tanube.. - } 

Fetween the cistern wells and flowing fountains are pump we- 
lls, which are seldom public wells but are found in courts of 
private houses, and are therefor seldom decorated. The cistern 
is then covered by a stone slab at whose centre stands the 
pune, usuelly of wood with a swing handle. It is also made of 
stone or cast iron, and is then treated like a stone pillar 
with cat and free terminal ornament, or a cast iron column with 
any form of capital supporting a statue, lamp, or free ornament. 
The hendle of the pump way have a decoration at its uprer end 
by iron tands like volutes to avoid its swinging sidewise. Ee- 
low the spout, often treated like a rain spout .asnthe head of 

a lion, dolphin or dragon, etc.,-stands the basin, most simply 
a hollowed stone slab, but in pore pleasing designs teink like 
& vase resting on the base of the pump end crossed by oron rods 
at top, on which the water pail is placed, (Fis. 476). 

2. Running fountains principally differ from cistern wells 
in teing supplied by water acqueducts or springs led through 
cires fron a reservéir higher than the outlet. Abtording te t 
their arrangement, they are either wall fountains or detached 
fountains. The former are often placed in courts, are niche f 
fountains in the front of the basin and project little from 
the face of the wall (Fig. 417). An architrave like that of a 
door decorates the niche, and this way be developed into a can- 

ory with pilasters, columns, pediments, etc., while the front 
of the basin has space for any decoration in relief. In circu- 
lar niches, the upper part is ornamented like a shell, a hori- 
gontal band being carried around at the height of the springing, 
and in case of richer treatment the discharge pipe may be con- 
nected with a statue in any. way. The fountains in the courts 
of Italian palaces as well as the sacristies of churches are 
mostly formed in accordance with the sane principles, the basin 
is composed of or covered with marble slats, and is sonetimes 
of cast bronze. Another arrangement if wall fountains is to 
placectheckasin before the wall face, so that the niche is 


shallow; this arrangement would be ouite suitable for the corner 


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256 
of two streets meeting ap an acute angle (Fig. 418). 

A third arrangement is yvarticularly adapted to be ¢baced un- 
der the lendings of ramps or stairs for terraces, aquariums 
or fishponds, lighted from above, is to arrange a well house, 
which is to te regarded as an enlarged niche. These three mo- 
des of arrangerent may usually be varied in many ways, and 
treated according to the princirle of decoration of niche foun- 
tains, may be developed into ¢rottes of all kinds like those 
in so wany Italian gardens, as well as in water decorations o 
of the late Renaissance. Imitations of stalactites, tufa, slit- 
tering minerals, shells, figures spouting water, dolphins and 
dragons, silenuses, serve to ornerent such sgrottos, which were 
also favorites at courts of French and Cerman princes. Such 
srottos exist at Versailles, Sanssouci, Schwetzingen, Wilhkems- 
néhe near Cassel with its water ornaments, as well as elsewhere. 

The simplest form of detached fountains may te treated like 
purr wells. In richer designs the number of water basins and 
discharge openings would be increased, and a corresponding 
form of plan be selected (Fis. 420). The most varied forms are 
especially possible in the larger mwarkef fountains, whether t 
basins are set in tiers above each other, or a common basin is 
formed. Ihe utrper basin may also be accessitle by steps.(Fig.421). 

Evidently the varied simple anf combined polygonal forms (Migs. 
422) may be used to good advantage as the systems of plans of 
such market fountains, and may vary according to whether they 
are connected with stairs, seats, or gas lamp posts, or an up- 
per group of water shells is formed besides the common tank. 

As a,means of decoration of these and other designs of foun- 
tains, all animal, plant or purely ornamental forms are suita- 
ble, if they have reference to the water. The front side of 
the basin may have reliefs of all kinds; the central pillar 
of the fountein (Fig. 423) consists of a plain rectangular or 

circular or polygonal ‘body a, wostly in the water, a second b 
contains the discharge pipes, and may be decorated by inscrip- 
tions, coats of arms, reliefs, etc. Above this is the base c 
with clan suited to that of the lower portion, and above is a 
cap that nay bear a statue, a canopy or lamp post d. ihe upper 
basins way be formed as vessels or shells; care must be taken 
that they do not appear too massive if seen from below. It is 
e favorite idea for market fountains to add water-spouting 


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257 
statues in suitable places, even on the margin of the basin, 
to enclose the entire fountain by an iron grille, so arrang- 
ing it that in spite of the grille, a pail may be filled. For 
this purpose parts of the basin may be cortelled out or openi- 
ngs are formed in the grille at proper places. 

3. Spring fountains and fountains. For these the same is 
nore or less true that has been said moncerning running fount- 
ains, but with this difference that they perfectly serve a pu- 
rely decorative purpose, and are only employed in sardens, as 
a means of obtaining water, teing connected with basins for 
gold fish or water plants. the simplest form of spring fountain 
consists of a shell on a vedestal; richer forms have several 
shells over each other, the lower fed by the upper. The whole 
may be surrounded by a single basin. The shells way te replaced 
by groups of shells, and the redestals may be in form of short 
columns, a clustered pier, the lower part of a vase, or figure 
sculptures. Discharge openings take the form of simple tubes, 
flowers, mouths of animals, or tan be connected with statues. 
Tt is evident that the sreatest latitude is rossitle in the 
treatment of fountains; thus a well known spring fountain in 
Rome has the form of a toat, and the one in Fiazza Navona is 
crowned ty an ancient obelisk. A rich contrast of falling and 
rising streams of water overfloping shell tasins, shell like 
mouths ab discharge openings, sometimes make real water ornan- 
ents of spring fountains. They may alse consist of an islet 
in a tasin treated and ornamented by statues supporting the 
water shells; it may further te enclosed by a canopy structure 
or it way decorate and cool the interior of @ room. 

4. Cascade fountains are purely ornamental in purpose and 
are architectural works wilh consideratle voluzes of falling 
water. They may be nerely architectural like Aqua Facla in 
Rome, with three great streams of water pouring down from a 
gate-like structure tefore a triumphel erch, and floying into 
a collecting tasin. Or in front of an architectural background, 
is constructed netural or artificial rock work, from different 
parts @6f which water gushes into a great basin as on Fontana 
Trevi at Romee Such cascade fountains may be developed into 
extended water ornaments ty sculptures and plant ornaments in 
connection with buildings, flights of sters, tridges, srottos, 


st 
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258 
etc.., as at Sanssouci and at Wilhelmshdhe in imitation of those 
at Versailles. 

The wall enclosing the basin way be formed like a seat (Fig. 
424), whose ‘back must have sufficient height, that a child st- 
anding on the seat cannot fall into the water; for this purpose 
the coping may be crowned ty a low iron railing to prevent one 
from climbing over the enclosure of the basin. 

V. MONUMENTS. 

Eesides fountains the principal decorations of streets and 
squares are monuments, for which we have only to consider men- 
orial and not sepulchral nonument&s. In all cases a distincti- 
on iswmade between the object toube supported above the ground, 
the pedestel, and the base or foundation. 

According to the object supported ty the pedestal, we may c 
classify eight different kinds of isolated monuments. 

1. The otject consists of emtlemsl a cross or an obelisk, a 
tower structure (monument on Kreuzberg, Eerlin). 

2. A bust is supported. 

2. A statue is supported. 

4. Iwo statues are supported. 

5. An eauestrian statue is the object. 

6. The princivel figure stands on a pedestal surrounded by 


or € subordinate statues. 
4, The monument has an architectural background. 


wy 


8, It is purely esthetic, decoration by statues subordinate. 

There are two primary requirements for monuments of all kinds; 
they must have good proportions of masses, and if isolated, t 
their outlines must be pleasing. Unfortunately both requireme- 
nts are séldow satisfied, since the training of the sculptor 
is too slightly architectural, and he tekes advice from the 
architectonly when the idea of the composition has been alre- 
ady decided. Thus for example, the Luther monument in Worms is 
faulty in arrangement; the subordinate figures stend on the en- 
closing wall and give the whole the appearance of a chessboard, 
on which stand several figures. It should te a first condition 
of an arrangement on the plen (Fig. 425), that the statues at 
a should in some way be connected with the monument proper at t. 

In the Luther monument in Worms all the statuss like that of 
Luther himself are looking in the same direction toward the e 
east, wubich has an unpleasins effects the monument is also not 


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ft0ggue bas tefometd sti of Leups tcotad ditty xasbaklys s 
jen omnets9qde eth! (biwesyq. bus ojn9 add. te bsstent! 3409 
benwstak o7et a yolyue! owitl: .takoi vos s0O2t omse 967 
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ieoetis7 8 feeoneo: [ftw uottosgocs: att: .(3syt .gi%) biaety7 
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cs .taonggon edt to tisz isgiontig: sdteql ised ar dt oA 
a 8 sogen ,eldteeog ee saisl es-4e9778 Si vode: 
y antasoly 2 af at easm oecdn .ff£°03 sovts i clustce 
(0 a, Sedeiedl oot ef oeed ods Tt] .biccry7 odd to sasm sit of 
sBaen 2 es toe ton as0b thi mol oot te bae filesevedoo! biee7¥9 
£8) fooc0c0n odd to tostdo Isxksutag od¢t show at dutiedocas.t! 
ibaa baer: edt ,bimerya 6 to: bseteah-aucloo {stuosey's roy (2S) 
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259 
orientated at right angles to the axis of the street, tut is 


parallel to it, extendind from east to west, which must te con- 
sidered a mistake, when the monument is not placed in the mid- | 
dle of the street itself like that of Fredéric the Creat in 
Eerlin, tut stands at the side of the street. 

The Schiller monument in Eerlin must be regarded as beings 
‘quite faulty, both in proportions and in its dimensions rela- 
tive to those of the soueare in which it stands, since the str- 
uctural masses of the treatre or of the two churches on Cens 
d’Armes market reouired a told and massive structure. The mon- 
uments in EFerlin most pleasing in proportions are Schinkel’s 
monument of the great elector and Rauch’s monument of Frederic 
the Creat. ) 

In regard to proportions and effect of cutlines, these will 
always be decided by the proportions between the pedestal and 
the object supported by it, and which rrescribes its plan. If 
we conceive that a cube rests on a slab and supports a ‘pyramid, 
(Fig.4263), the proportions of the masses viewed diagonally a 
will be comrletely changed and may be unpleasing; had we drawn 
a cylinder with height equal to its diameter and supporting 4 
cone, insteed of the cube and pyramid, its appearance would be 
the same frow any point. If we exploy a form interuediate bet- 
ween the tno, we have two choices of a form for the monument, 
either the octagon or the cross (Fig. 427). Circular, octagon- 
a1 or cross pedestals always look best if viewed diagonally. 

It is preferable to make the pedestal of such form as to pro- 
duce a gradual transition from the square te the cross, then 

to the octagon and finally to the circle. If we asain return 
#6 the sinclest case and insert a cap between the cube and the 
pyranid (Fig. 428), its projection will conceal a part of the 
cyrarid and thas lessen the object suprorted by the pedestal. 
As it is really the trincipal part of the monument, the pyran- 
id should appear as large as possible, hence a special base is 
gEeperly given to it, whose mass is in a pleasing proportion 

to the mass of the tyremid. If the base #s too massive, the 
tyramid looks small} end if too lon, it does not ect as a mass. 
If an otelisk is made the principal object of the wonument (Fig. 
429), or a wemorial column instead of a pyramid, the mass of 
the tase would arrpear unpleasing in proportion to the obelisk. 

Cn this consideration are based the good end bad arransgerents 


footie 1 i nokdsoyouy od? ‘otnsmceor feo 08 .einoneson To 
7 iridantien: etd sonta .gatasofyas erotercdt at Intesbeq. bas 
ppeat cof SI statis as svieesm cot satouz01q9: data oot sbsx 
ie {fin th ovoteted? .avore oliv ¢ edti edool vlin 
weebeq od to 980 ods noonted seed isisoesa 6 taeent of 19 
Gt aotouber aodt .tnemomor Sdt to Sootdo Leqtoatey. sds. bes 
gO) -atteq af rotowstadae s ys) taWonos odd to Sdatas Ledos 
bidouet es .bovedo exe ene! OaoT, Se0tt ti itet roves {ite 
ae stet0 odd oftebsst to sasugsow gtd ot 
it 1 » batches odd dedt yextéea aontvoes tatoz bacon A 
i 22 Hy, Degnsres 02 ed) sewn fostdo. ans to gesd 
hdd .tetf{er ak andtist0ceb odt bas taentso7t ody . 290690 
{| tasiiaoo 8 tedt to ,ae0tdt (egfocizy siv seunsed toatdo 
)e1on odd bas tooito sat to twentsstt sat aeented S850 
ae: ‘. eftokdroy sesd sdt to éasutsetd Soltstsd 
Pit at yltort © diiw aeetzs ogists asiutesvoa as anil 
| p dot dtin eevtsie ,[etasbe7qbentot ylonks. ovoe 9: evods 
ae 70 natbasta &.,e90cte0o Geltstso ¢iddia 40 
. 'sionte bas ately asiupes: [lin ..9%6) .Fa2t? gorete 
ec coseptovts ods aud? stasthaoc 3d% uisisi+ot: alsteed 
fuoees’ Isdesebeg S08 vest odd to eantblyon [aagtostidors 
sill ¢jo'fsqtoniay: edt of t{steb to: 2907390 odd co, adac3e05 
agen On dotdw sort atstavot msde.2 ss ¢oenonor 8 scott of 
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giton sts as to dtezt Lsesetai bos (saistxe ad? taatess 
lie A to etutouttedes edt azot tsa egeta:onioasoes ag? 
: ,eldtesoz ee olttil essetiste to agate edi Ifso0% bfeode 
| vse tetew ates Sods bolftorj 02199 bigode stotszeds 
weve ont of daetsgge sd yon Saogial: tisedé Jedd: O98. tho. res 
eingastoss s dittw too tasd vers awotsgidsewl .( OSD .2F8) 
fess moitooe aslogasist ditw eaoketocks versitsl odd tosagt 
8 atsec agns77s of .weivson of. sagsoqxo yd efitaslizt. agoosd 
9d ylftees yen st sonata .segetyrt-at tloutt tasnegor ot 
~ent To yifutoty odt at etess sosly of :sidatioa.ct sk Fad 
| +9299 dtip nese 94 ysarth- stadt on tcox 
re Yo atetsaco toeideq [szfontzy seoda esaasonon @Y ft. 
gsbey. bas sasi sdt ,2outete dgeoxs bakd yas To.stostdo 36 
S9a)to ovisom ent? & .dtiweseds Biooos oF Bagaesyc. od. Olvote 
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cf monuments. 6n most monuments the proportion between object 
and pedestal is therefore unpleasing, since the pedestal is 
nade too high, propucing too massive an effect. It too freque- 
ntly looks like a tile stove. Therefore it will always be prop- 
er to insert a speceial base between the cap of the pedestal 
and the principal object of the monument, thus reducing the 
total height of the monumgnt ty a substructure in parts. Cne 
will never fail if these ground laws are obeyed, as Rauch did 
in his monument of Frederic the Creat. 

A second point requires nitice, that the pedestal an@ the 
base of the object must be so arranged,with reference. to: thed 
ckject, the treatment and the decorations in relief, that the 
object becomes the principal thing, or that a contrast is pro- 
duced between the treatment of the object and the more or less 
detailed treatment of the base portion. 

Thus an couestrian statue agrees with a richly treated base 
ebove a nore simply formed pedestal, statues with rich drapery 
or richly detailed costumes, @ standing or crouching lion, a 
dragon fight, etc., will require plain and simple -beses and pe- 
destals, to retain the contrast. Thus the developrent of the 
architectural mouldings of the base and pedestal essentially 
depends on the degree of detali ic the rrincipel object. 

To treat a monutent as a shem fountain from which no water 
flons like the Schiller monument in Eerlin, is a coarse offence 
against the external and internal truth of an art work. 

The ascending sters that form the substructure of a monument 
should recall the steps of stairs as little as possitle, and 
therefore should te so rrofiled thet rain water may sreedily 
ron off, and that their purpose may be apparent to the eye. 
(Fig. 430). Inscriptions are best cut with a rectangular sect- 
ion of the letters; incisicns with triangular section easily 
becore illegitle ty exposure to weather. To arrange seats on 
the tonurent itself is improper, since it may easily te defaced. 
Eut it is suitable to rlece seats in the vicinity of the monu- 
ment so thet it may te seen with ease. 

1. Zn ronunents whose princiral subject consists of emblems 
or objects of any kind, except statues, the base and pedestal 
should be errenged to accord therewith. A fine motive of such 
monuments is shown in the otelisk fountain in Carlsruhe (Fig. 


ery a re 


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pork ae: ‘Istesteg sit baoyed tostors ysu eotesd ond oaodn 
gfete dtie atnomanor of bostitte sd vex svitow suse me 
fd yllenotir03077 es sved yilsvas atead din stasagaot . 

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voce. ad yen ceed [stosga s ,foette ovicasm oot 6: antved 
od? stend odd bas [steobeg sav to rs90.edd sanded 
oz to aiteeesaet edt tentsts booels o4 ven. 20 sext oasts 
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-bedosteh to seso ni modest ef gecn etar. (atosqed: .€ 
{fe go enokszoyory 6003 ove yout tedz ,soutetes dtiw 
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yeotagt + non test edt te uneline soely ot ,paofl edt neent 
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8a ! j , onek sensd He01d 8 fostdo. Tsido sit avrg dotdw .esrre 
bus eotsn yous if asdy asetied cesaqye eatcakt satire :,asaso 
beret ingom ol .tebeors eae ancktreg tgwol vieds soake) ,a0t 

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eit 2% qbod edg to sesaebfos od?) .taott. of) sk dag 8st 
seasd seotw ts ,fetesboq odt oF: #eartaod oitedses a@ assot 
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261 

431): an ovelisk is flanked by two griffins, lions, river sods, 
ebve,, whose massive oblong pedestals praject beyond the square 
of the otelisk; the latter is utilized as a running fountain, 
whose two tasins may project beyond the pefestal at its sides. 
The sane motive wey be utilized in wonuments with statues. 

2. Monuments with busts usually have a prorortionally high 
pedestal that receives the inscription; to prevent this fron : 
having a too massive effect, a special base may te inserted b 
between the cap of the pedestal and the bust. The busts may 
stand free or may be rlaced against the rear walls of torti- 
cos, or also be arranged as memorial fountains. The busts may 
be protected from rein ty a canopy-like sthucture. 

2, Especial care must be taken in case of detached monuments 
with statues, that they have good proportions on all sides, @& 
and that they diminish rrorerly upward. Therefore it is proper 
to cover the figures with mantles, which conceal the spaces te- 
treen the legs, to place emblems at the feet of the figures, 
pedestals supporting an arm cf the figure, and similar access- 
ories, which give the chief object a broad base. Hence in many 
cases, sittings figures appear better than if they were stand- 
ing, since their lower portions are broader. In monuments with 
statues, the pedestals usually look too broad when viewed diag- 
onally, and the angles are therefore usually truncated (Fig. 
432). In nore richly detailed pedestals, the angles are flank- 
ed ty pilasters or slight projection, and an entatlature is i 
inserted ctetween theér capitals anf the carp. 

4, Honuments with twe statues as a rule require en oblong fp 
pedestal, with its broader side at front. This broad front site 
then requires, so as not to seem empty, to be divided ty reli- 
efs, inscrited tablets, end like ascessorics. Figs. 433 and 434 
represent the base of such a monument at Ceneva, executed after 
designs of Erofessor Nicolai. 

5. Equestrian statues likewise need an oblong redestal, but 
jts end is in front. The told mass of the body af the horse 
forms an esthetic contrast to the pedestal, at whose base angle 
statues may be Placed. Among the most beautiful equestrian sta- 
tues are the wonuments of the Great Elector, of Frederic the 
Great, that of Colleoni in Venice, the angles of the pedestal 
being decorated by columns. 

é. One of the most extenSively employed types of monuments 


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262 
is that where a central statue is surrounded by four angle 
fisures. An increased development én height results in such 
monuwents as well as a tyramidal enlargement downward. It is 
preferatle for these monuments also to make the pedestal low- 
er, placing the principal statue on a special base (Fig. 435). 
Host seated angle statues likewise have separate bases. 

Sometimes four sutordanate statues are placed between the 
angle statues, or groups of emblems, coats of arms and other 
symbolical or ornawental accessories. These may be so arranged 
that the lower part of the pedestal is separated from the upper 
cortion bya cap, and independently developed architecturally ., 
so that the upper part tecomes a low frieze, flat or decorated 
by reliefs. In this way the mass of the pedestal can te more 
richly treated, and its beauty of proportion be increased by 
these subdivisions. 

7, The treatment and proportions of an architectural backgsr- 
ound of monuments must te arranged in accordance with the mon- 
ument when serving as a foil to heighten the importance of the 
monument. Thus the statue of Eavaria in Munich is surrounded 
by 2 hall of fame, and in the competition for the monument of 
Victor Emanuel, a triumphal arch was tlaced in the foreground, 
beneath it being placed the actual monument. The erchitectural 
surroundings of a monument may evidently te arranged and treat- 
ed in the most varied ways; not too large a scale will always 
te preferatle for the architecture, so that the monument may 
be as prominent as possitle. Nichelangelo well understood in 
his tombs of the Medici as well as in the monument of Fore 
‘Julius II, how to make the statues themselves more imposing by 
the small scale of the architectural tacksround. 

There remains e word to say in regard to monuments, which 
are not detached or isolated. They are generally arranged as 
niche monuments attached to a wall, and the architecture of t 
the niche forws the principal motive of their treatment. The 
notive of the triumphal arch was frequently used to geod advan- 
tase in the more extended designs of this kind. Four niches, 
each containing a statue, are also combined in a detached mon- 
ument, that terminates at top in some form of roof. (Fig. 436). 

8. Furely esthetic monuments are usually arranged according 
to a few ground types as memorial columns, tower structures, 
temple buildings, and also as gtatues arranged around a centr- 


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AINE 
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263 

central point. When the memorial piller is of slender proport- 
ions, it may take the most varied forms (Igel column near Tre- 
ves, monument of Columbus at Genoa, Hemorial column in Neustadt 
at Vienna, Mary’s columns of Rococo perior ‘in different cities 
of Austria); in larger designs it was usually treated as a co- 
lumn with capital, whose abacus is accessitle by a winding st- 
airs (column of Trajan in Rome, Column Vendome in Faris, Monv- 
ment of victery in Berlin). Honuzents like towers are either 
solid (monument of Lysicrates, monument on Kreuzberg in Eerl- 
in), or are arranged to serve as towers for otservation. 

These may also be treated in different ways according to lo- 
cation. The substructure containing the entrance to the stairs 
or an elevator, (towers of Trocadero in Faris), sometimes forzs 
an extended architecturel design, sometimes with the form of 
an open portico, that of a chapel (Fig. 43, a), or finally a 
cross shaped substructure bt, with centre occupied by stairs. 

In arrangement 2 the stairs tay te placed in an apse, so that 
it is first connected with the central stairs above the vaults. 
We have a characteristic example of temple and centrally ar- 
ranged ¢lans in the Walhalla near Regensbure and in the Ruhmes- 
halle near Kehlheim. Such designs with which are to be classed 
lookout pavilions, like the Cloriette of Schénbrunn near Vien- 

na, do not admit of a general discussion, being entirely free 
compositions, probatly the freest and most pleasant problems 
of the architect, permitting a nultitude of solutinns. 

We CITY CATES; TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. 

Now that most cities have no narrow circle of fortifications, 
a principal notive for the treatment of city gates entirely d 
disappears, that gave the gates a certain character in early 
towns, the gate tower that sometimes only served to contain a 
portcullis or drawbridge, or sometimes the prison, or suard. 

City gates have become obstructions to traffic according to: 
modern ideas, and one is disposed to remove them, rather than 
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and the traffic near the gates is thus falicitated. If new ga- 
tes are erected, the plan of the streets is generally arranged 
so that the larger central opening is used for wagon traffic, 
abile the smaller side openings serve foot passengers. Yet such 


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modern gates eventually proved too narrow for the traffic, so 
that they were entirely isolated like the Fropyleum at Hunich, 
or passages later arranged at one or both sides as at the Eran- 
denburg gate in Eerlin. 

Cates are frequently flanked by suard houses, or ty buildings 
for collection of the octroi duty. Thus results the usual arr- 
angement of tree erenings between wings. If the central gateway 
is covered by a semicircular arch as well as the narrower side 
cpenings, the motive of the triumphal arch is usually the most 
natural design.(Fig. 438). The widdle part is generally crowned 
by an attic and group of statues, a quadriga or other symbolic 
decoration, and the wings are covered ty platforms reached by 
stairs, and their parapets may have battlements. Such platforms 
are peculiably suitable for seeing life in the streets during 
festivals, and open toxes may be arranged over the side arches 
for the same purpose. Where wings are unnecessary, external s 
stairs may te placed to make the attic accessitle. If streets 
terminate without a gateway, their ends ere preferably marked 
by squares and ty corner tuildings of more importance. Cate- 
ways in the interior of a city usually result from the passage 

under a reilway. in the better quartets they especially reonis= 
re artistic decoration, which should at least comprise a rpleas- 
ing and told limitation of the masonry forming the railway via- 
duct. The same is also true of railway tunnels inside cities. 
Thus the tunnel under the castle of Heidelbers should have been 
constructed at somewhat sreater expense. 

‘X%. ERICCES, RAMES, EASINS FOR WATER, HAREORS. 

Eridges over canals and rivers within cities are usually lou, 
as the level of the streets is not much above the highest level 
of the water, as in Faris, Eerlin and Amsterdam. In cities in 
mountainous regions, bridges are placed high above the point 
of view; reference is here made only to the chain bridge in 
Ereiberg in Switzerland. It seldom suits wagon traffic to raise 


the bridgeway too much at its middle, so that in cities like 
Amsterdam the towpath must ce lowered on account of the many 


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that its sides cannot be seen (Fig. 429), it is then erected 
as a structure purely utilitarian. Eut if streets extend alongs 
the tanks or passenger steamers pass under the bridge as in 


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Faris, there is opportunity for an esthetic treatment of the 
sides of the bridge. Thus many city bridges, the Seine bridges 
in Faris, Arno bridges in Florence, Woldau bridge in Frague, 
Elector’s bridge in Eerlin and others, are treated and decora- 
ted as architectural works. Ihe motive of the decoration of 
bridges of symmetrical form as stated in former Charters, is 
furnished by the arrangement of atutments and piers; in large 
iron bridges any decoration desired is concentrated on the pi- 
ers, while scarcely anything is added to ornament the bridge 
itself. 

In the selection of the mode of construction lies a princi- 
val weans of giving a pleasing appearance to iron bridges, and 
this should te carefully considered for large iron bridges in 
cities as far as circumstances permit, so that they not only 
satisfy material end also esthetic needs, and the mononotonous 
lattice and ugly Fauli bridges should therefore be avoided. The 
bridge over the Rhine at Coblenz is one of the most pleasing 
iron bridges, and it springs over the stream in a single arch. 
Arched bridges are generally most pleasing when in a single 
arch like nearly all bridges over the Seine at Faris. It is 
only admissible to cover the construction with plates for 
smaller iron structures, and great bridges must produce a4 
pleasing effect ty the division of the masses. 

The principal decorations of bridges always consist of an 
architectural treatment of the cars of the piers. fhe end por- 
tels and the caps of the intermediate piers, besides the struc- 
ture itself, give the bridge a special stamp. The end portals 
are either towers, as at the bridges over the Rhine at Stras- 
turg end Mannheiz, where doutle portals are constructed on ac- 
count of the double tracks of the railway; the foot ways on & 
each side lead to the arrangement of two large and two smaller 
entrance openings, or if the bridge is to serve for wagon traf- 
fic at the same time, to the use of three large and two small 
gateways. Or the end portals are flanked by towers, as in case 
of many tridges in fortified cities (Kayence, Cotlenz and Vir- 
scheu bridges). lower rortaly may receive the richest architec- 
tural treatment. 

The wost teautiful decoration of intermediate piers consists 
of bridge chapels, great favorites in the middle ages. Small 
structures for various purposes may be erected in their places. 


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266 
2 lookout tower may also be built on the central pier. 

The chains of chain bridges require . special suprert at each 
bridge pier, that usually takes the form of a tower. The apre- : 
arance of the chain bridge over the Banube in Eudapest is very 
stately and dignified; the series of portals and the lines of 
the chaing of the structure itself produce a pleasing effect. 

_ On smaller bridges in cities a favorite idea is to substit- 
ute separate statues or groups for the end portals, to decora- 
teethe widdle pier by a monument as on the Elector’s bridge in 
Eerlin, the old bridges of Frankfort and Frague, and the posts 
of the railing are made posts for gas lamrs. It is likewise 
very proper to widen the foot ways ty corbelling out the tops 
of the piers, as in the bridge over the Rhine at Easle, where 
semicircular pier caps are furnished with seats. 

The railings of stone bridges are preferatly solid and also 
of stone, or perforated and made of brick in smaller bridges, 
or are balustrade railings, and are made of wood for wooden 
bridges or of iron for iron bridges. In the first case, the 
railings are parapet walls extending between pedestals, which 
nay serve to suprort lamp posts for gas or electric lights: i 
in smaller bridges the railings may be treated as lattice sir- 
ders producing a structural effect. Railings of wooden bridges 
are usually constructed cf an external covering of toards, like 
talustrades of galleries and may te made of fret-sawed toards. 
Completely covered wooden bridges were formerly favorites, cov- 
ered stone bridges are rarer, like a bridge over the Arno at 
Florence, where @ corridor passes over shops and connects the 
Uffizi and Pitti palaces. 

All structural decoration is generally rejected in case of 
ramps, quay walls, retaining walls, etc.; rusticated masonry,., 
cyclorean masonry, and all told and solid masonry are test 
suited for these. Ihe middle ages and Renaissance were not al- 
Ways satisfied in such cases to consider merely the material 
needs; engineers were always too much artists, and artists 
were too much engineers, to be pleased with a tare wall nith-— 
cut decoration. Ey corbelled tays, battlements, sculptured 
coats of arms, emtlems of cities, reliefs and angle towers, 
and similar expedtents they sought to relieve the monotony 
of their walls; if these were wells of fortifications, then 
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267 

architecture, waking interesting esthetic decorative works of 
city walls, ends of bridges and city sates. Ihe entire quay u 
wall in H&échst on the Kain is even decorated by a late Cothic 
round arched frieze ornamented by lilies. 

Walls of large docks for receiving ships, as well as those 
of harbors, are usually flat and plain, which is best suited 
to their purpose; cranes anf other machinern for loading, wood 
vosts and iron rings for mooring vessels, landing stages and 
stairs, belong to such shore walls. Sheds for goods, custom 
houses, covered halls for sailors, light houses, waiting rooms 
for the public, ticket offices, restaurants, hotel gardens and 
similar accessories, give the shores and hartors their special 
stamp accordins to local conditions. One of the most beautiful 
hartors is that of Cenoa with its great portico; one enjoys t 
the magnificent view of the ships and the activity on shore. 

Our wodenn insipid era has done little to make the treatment 
of herbors more pleasing; still something has teen done of Lake 
Constance in this respect. the hartors of Constance, Lindau, 
Friedrichshafen, are known for their beautiful designs. Ceneva 
also possesses beautiful quays, as well as parts of Naples, T 
Trieste and Leghorn., in their quays decorated by gardens. Cth- 
er cities famous for beautiful harbors and shore promenades are 
Dover, Havre, Erighton, Kiel, Hamburs and Fortsmouth on the I 
Isle of Wight. The very large quays in London and other sea ¢ 
ports serve exclusively for material needs, so that attention 
is paid only to architectural considerations, so far as to lo- 
cate magnificent tuildings in their vicinity, railway stations, 
hotels, warehouses, etc.; these large and really splendid stru- 


ctures give to such harbors and ‘quays a specific esthetic character. 


Ye LICHTING OF CITIES. 
This is preferably by gas and electricity, and reguires lamp 


costs for supporting the lights. Since cities require a large 
number of lamps, cast iron is usually employed as the material 


of lamp posts; it is proper to make the cedestals of stone for 
large lame posts, such as are usually erected before palaces 
and putlic buildings or on squares. It is even advisatle to 
treat the pedestals es cclumns for sake of econony., and bec=- 
ause they may also te used as posts for stopping carriages. 

In many places such columns are also used for supporting a 
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268 
to their lower part, that it way be turned like the leaf of a 
book, and on it may te painted a plan of the locality, addres- 
ses, times for visiting things worth seeing, etc. The lower ¢ 
part of the lamp post is made wider and may be treated like t 
the classic tripod, or the lower part of a vase. The shaft can 
de diminished upward and is also test treated in imitation of . 
the antioue candelabra and similarly decorated, usually crown- 
ed ty a freely treated Corinthian capital, which supports the 
lamp or a circle of lamps, with angular or scroll arms radiat- 
ing from the centre. The lamps may be placed in a circle or in 
several tiers above each other, forming groups of three, four 
or five. It is usually expected to obtain from such groups bet- 
ter effects than they actually produce, for a pyramidal sroup 
does not appear so well from beneath, as does the simple arran- 
gement in a circle; still the size of the lamps will decide 7% 
which arrangement should be preferred. When burners are used 
without glass shades, as in circular crowns of sas lights, 
the space required for each is less than if shades were used, 
which both protect the light from wind, modify and disperse 
it. Reflectors are often r¢laced behind the lamps. 

The lamp tosts as works in cast iron admit of the most varied 
treatment in detall; zine or bronze is rarely used for lamp rp 
costs except in enclosed rooms, and wrought iron is only for 
lanterns in private houses, since these metals ere too costly 
to be used for the great number of lamp posts needed in a city. 
Cast zine posseses too little strength unless the material is 
‘quite thick, to be exposed to injury in the open streets, that 
might deface the lamp post. 

¥. CLECORATIONS FOR FESTIVALS. 

These serve temporary purposes, therefore excluding everyth- 
ing wonumental, employing extedients of very diverse kinds, ec- 
cording to the season of the year, in which they ere erected, 
such as standards and flags, garlands of leaves and fir branch- 
es, wreaths of flowers, triumphal arches and gateways built w 
with a wooden framework, over intessections of streets, tapes- 
tries, dreperies, ornamental paintings, emflems and roats of 
arms, decorative objects of all kinds made of gyrsum, paper and 
clay, tablets with inscriptions, illuminated transpagencies, etc. 
For festivals and ceremonies when the court and government or 
city officials appear on a special square, and the spectators 


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oo nor t pantie bvseises reas beakers basertas 00 
- Weiseesoen ots chaste viens one  ahaksktto one 
Pia cianlionionrts to woo xektoods tot ,elevitest feo 
jive wsftete boa eecktto .otnersetest eelisn yliues 
. beboon eve asedr107 eseris¢? 167 aie 

b te pasren gus ofet smottidtdxe e*biton 616 106 107: 
fk ove bas @lewtue to etastnod bas ,sie999 sit to newex 
skeds sved aoidgio test Life deol’ .eortsontidics 
fot ‘betoveb yitie7 10 eA Totte ,Bwottidtdxe fetasesbar sot 
3 p bas anottidtdxe sae , od fedkewn tot ,euorstitaxs 
ode of aoisrbbs at heat didze e*bdiso«n od? .soesttoa 
| sting sla «sexerae’ To ebotitive ¢ ssiness ecotteitixze 
to enmgfeeb [etseqe bos .ateotd ,inomsenae to keels 
t saotést0css to es ven {etenss & mt bise od yor oltert 
> ,esuecen bee erotano ,aacttihaod [sood .efevis 
‘easvot (of sot eaotictsze%7 to tedi oboe [svivast ode 
. emotéss0006 edt nk bean ad of etuetbhsyxe rot sole 
) od- Iktw enoktetoesb: bas fevidast odd to retos sic 
een ost ud t0 ape teayaitemppgaabagne tefomson adt 
. be \ ttl .LevEdast 

y ntstres sobag betentteds ed yom soaid ife to elewrtest 
py asifnoeg atest sved-eievitest doigd) .weiv to Bintog 
qileonas teaet bae ,tooe odd oF antbi10508 bantateteo 
iS trom ods ek ae TO yeettro o€fonssd nt e985 rebidd. esq 
| te alavitest eys° bas Leotrotetn as b2678052 39 yan. yodt 
Peo: sqo7 betoglargitnusoes a To sottalistect sad ts ant 
es Bi seseitint yoo edi yamine ,i91969 edt: to soning: betstor3s 

iigBe atsq 8 dtin botoseumoo oxodd o7e alevitast [sotsoraty 
t 80 ~evet tusttogmi Sion sdf asin .bonottusy vant esondt 
se ,Gseob baa divkd. .g6n sort avets: evotwototv: saeittes 
fevitest teLodoy [is esbelond yrorsiso balds A’ .bese10792 | 
em tant ,etastaoa Sttesnayy bge aniteota .batonts .oteus 
at Lsevites! ihe oe ant. colheapnaaen gees se. cLfissons 
) st Ievites? 2 oag .a96eerT ot fevttesl wobeen-arr2 
ed bebastts enokidelfoo antlovsas sits detfIs\.oxs' sands of 
thiftdgo teeth edd yiLenkt bag ,faorxet099 antrxb: afsaokass} 
Watedt of autbr00048 ,muntea 10 Yaraoe ooel of edeniaves sent 
3 oo tesf patente doktiw ,phokdididrs at béfron° 40 .gonst7T07 
7% | pat: Meares | Sede er eat its 


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269 
concentrated, raised amphitheatres,:pavilions for the court 4 | 
and officials, and music stands are necessary, while for musi- 
cal festivals, for shooting contests or tournaments, large as- 
sembly halls, restaurants, offices and similar subordinate iro- 
ous for various purroses are needed. . 

For our era world’s exhibitions take the rlace of Clympic 
games of the Creeks, and contests of animals and men #@n Roman 
amphitheatres. Almost all larger cities bave their buildings 
for industrial exhibitions, wholly or partly devoted to local 
exhibitions, for musical contests, art exhibitions and other 
purposes. The world’s exhibitions in addition to the halls of 
exhibitions require a multitude of ‘annexes, restaurants and p 
tlaces of amusement, kiosks, and special designs of which as 
little may be said in a general way as of decorations for fes- 
tivals. Eocal conditions, customs and usuases, character of 
the festival and that of rreparations for it, sovern the deci- 
sion for expedients to te used in the decoration. Thus the 
character of the festival and decorations will be decided by 
the mourning of a solemn funeral ceremony or by the -joy of a 
festival. | 

Festivals of all kinds may te collected under certain general 
points of view. Church festivals have their peculiar character, 
determined according to the sect, and recur annually like Cor- 
‘pus Christi day in Catholic cities, or 4s in the next group 
they way be regarded as historical and are festivals of greet- 
ing at the installation of a recently elected rope or a newly 
appointed prince of the Church, or nay be any jubilees. 

Historical festivals are those connected with a prince, like 
those ‘just mentioned, when the more important days, coronation, 
marriage, victorious return from war, birth and death, are com- 
memorated. A third category includes all popular festivals of 
music, singing, shooting and gymnastic contests, that recur 
annually or periodically, like the October festival in Wunich, 
Firt-weador lestival in Dresden, Eeorle*s festival in Cannstadt. 
To these are allied the traveling collections attended by pro- 
fessionals during Fentecost, and finally the great exhibitions 
that terminate in late sumuer or autumn, according to their in- 
portance, or world’s exhibitions, which usually last from May 


till the end of Cctober. 
THE ENC. 


a eee eee ee 
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Ss ,QPMOTH9 82 BIGAT 
a ae eee 
= eotabtoo? to anel Saetr0 at teo'. 
-_—_*+ 6s eee =~ = = HOKTOCborFAl 
~—S ee ew He ee HoEEeOTT 
-=—=- «ee = + + + Eilean anteofoud .A 
Cee eR NE HS <ETROSSE HOF, oL 
eld me eredfaes to. ezaoees elddud oa 
ae ahh ee —ginoven aseyoldyo .4 

: -eon032 botngaps to wraodsw slsdud .2 
wen ene ee + Bogota to -yInoO8en ritss »D, 
“see ~eeeote oetef to Yrgoasa asldad 29 
wm ee es os ~~ = ~ + gytsaeTd to abot ox 
aes a Se BOROT TeLeed’ ,2 
« ateldes poiamefo bas eatnetast .y. 
aan “fereney al yrsoesa teliah .6 
~s meee ee + = = wetpoeen forsd 68 
“een = + > - ebaed [aistouTte of 
ea 6 e424 + Brod tools wa 3 
wee ba ee we ~~ + = BOT BROT? .8 
ais Bete eeebngd. dailol to 2fdie2 wy 
tn eh eS el ei tere ~ aoe = Hood cetnel[?® 6 
see ee ew te et = 4)- Bb00d Syideiooss d 
~-_ ee wm ee + eflsw to garsotasly Isqgetek .F 
“ss eee ee eee ee ee + + gilee weboow 6d 
~~ = erodmtd (Sdnosiiod te begoqnoo afisw .x 
ao =e se S eleggoducs fesitsey to alls .9 
we ee we ee ee ee tm - oollow bisod-.y . 
~~ ee ewe eee eee flow Onetod .4 
~s-2- eee = + = ~ a00hT TS Sos Botlenss os 
ow mo all nol ealiiea ibe ite: eto ~ = oasatiie] «3. 
ee wl ee ee = dtemosedurs Bee 6? 
“_—|—_ ee ee He sarah sh ~ Ss ele] - egnglisd. J 
~-- ee ew eee agailiss onote. bedtusy-aok ot 
“see e + + >> = ~ enms97 asboon to gncfied. .S 
~eee e e eee t ee we ee odelise goal a 
~- + boon bas sort to stocs bozae7d ofiieky od 
~~ is eee we = = = stoor bangetd asbooW .x 
-—ss = - -a01f T° stoot baesers slitsiy .&. 


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TAELE CF CCNIENIS. 


Preface- ------- - er reer ert rr ee 
Host important laws of Tectonics. - ------ - 7 4 
Introduction ------ cfr rr ct rrr ee 
Frograme- —-- om mwmme to rer sts oe 17 
A. Enclosing walls- ----- ef rer rrr errr 41s 
1. Stone masonry- ------ eer eter er ert 18 
a. Rubble masonry of boulders -'- - ----=--- l= 19 
be Cyclopean masonry- - ----- ot ttre eo 20 | 
c. Rubkle masonry of guarried stones- - ------- 22 : 
d. Ashlar twasonry of small stones ----=--—-~-7~= = 25 | 
e. Ashlar masonry of large stones -- - -- = ~™- == 26. | 
a. Kode of dressing --------- cer mee ee 2& 
8. ‘ashlar bonds - <e-ere= eer ot coeote hens Ree 33 


y. Fastening and clamping ashlars*s ss sass # 37 
8. Ashlar masonry in generale +*=-*2222 e222 2 37 


9, Frick masonry- ------ cco et tr rrr ree AO. 

a, Structural bonds) - -)- - -)-s> wom beh ebe Soe eee 41 

@. Block! bonds < Here) perenne Spee She ae SE ee 

g,. Crose ‘hond - = « - 4 + -)= = 44S = = eee 42 

yao Cothic: or Fobish:bent- <oriecte= are - = ateie £ 42 

8. Flemish bond - ----------- err re 43. 

be Decorative bonds ----- --- - ee ee me ee Ae 

3. External, plastering: of walla: - ot-a> t-te ere eee Ay 

dy: Hooda welleird oe Pi theres rete ree ee eee AR 

a. Walls composed of horizontal timbers - - -- - = 48 

8.:iWalls. ofp versacal, timbers-<y-y)-i- ser subloeer = 50 

ys Board: wallsey-uro-isora-cconectel-wtth = aekpess 50 

$8, Ealing walls -.--- ---- mee mir ee 53 

se, Paneling. andylathices=1-p-0- Sict= so soxts, ae 54 

Sy Lateacess <orlever< Sweledon-w tl psbeler-tencives 60 

5. Half, timber: work! -)-)- pew seit ce tes, “bee = See 61. 

E. Ceilings casimitesltes Site -tee-Oetoter-—t estires carge 63. 
1. Non-vaulted stone ceilings -------7-7°%-7-777 63 : 
2, Ceiling of wooden beams—-)-9- -9=) so citet chests es 90 . 
Soi Tron ceilings“ si ceres, ~ord ni peel tytn eset eres 74 | 
4, Visible trussed roofs of iron and wood ------- 78 | 
x. Wooden trussed roofs ------------ 7-7 78 | 

Q. Yisibbensenesed roofs or ireas = = 4s 79 


5, Vaults - — - 88 hoy eee ee ee a 80 


“Sk ae ee 6S 2 hye oe 4, 
-" = 


Bs 


- etinsy trotonk’ .@ 
| #stiverv lenavT »® 
> etinsy pe010,.8 | 
--—--- aie ~s eee em eee eH = ~ OF] v¢ 
2 = ethosy [sveetbol -.a 
(ene eo ere # oe os & & ~ aS [gBY) 8207) 2.’ 
~ | ) etiosy isoisad .3 
~<_ee we =e © == ~—- $lusy Lescof ey. 2 
_~ + ~efiosy beddfty to sevidoersyiiesooe] .¢ 
a ae ly ne mai aed ~eifosy aetetol?) .3 : 
“mae ree = + ~ © Otlosv sonseetsaad > 
“ese ~ > ~ + ~ “beauties gaitged, Jeyeqges .2 
ee ee tw em 8 Hee wm = spgmelod .f 
~see-- ~~ - sgoitstsbiages Ledenes) '.s 
eae eee ee + ~~ = <bbeted wt) eamplod od 
een een den ens s & s[gtigao: 10,0108 .» 
meee ereerse ne + + + ~ wtisds Yo. stot .6 
eo we eee - ~ egpuloo to aensd sy ¢ 
lee eee eee ee e ~ = ufos to [stasbey .2 


et 


’ 


ee -_-=- = + + -——- 
ee a ee ae ee a 


— <-- = -e lel or oer ere 
a2 s 


4 


: UR A el ca ele die wi oe ate wim, HORI oS 
; = tig to taoutsors soncesigasa Sas otgeelD ox 
Rie nem a em mlm wenety Siessio Oggogaod .9 
be ~ ~ee-e + + - > = etoig iagssibem Sasagnod .y 


~~ -- = ~~ ~ OTL 10. b8ge .9aote fo esanteiistag .* 
Joan Se Se we CORSO eo - «- + «JIgenveerT .£& 


Deere + + ~ ~eTabo oteselp odie. detoeacuo) .€ 
Se wappotad rebate to asvstéisors: bus siait sy 
Deen e ee ew ee cBancloo bas 219g oveds Bedouk «> 
ie - ‘- ee nl we ie ee ee he o & s+ el OER) LP 
- -—<-“s2e ee ee ewe ee ee = e9ROEI0> bedoss 2g 
ee --~ = = 20 tl bud- seods. des. ceroits bogavod sy 
| ---+ +--+ = sopgotiiod: gaicit pas.eenes tried .¢ 
BE - ~~ - --- ~ = + agnibligd bolets aot 10 cosa! -s 

P- - - - - =~ = = =~ BQotbliod osleie, cis 10 evid of 
ee ~~~ welien, ai, e2ateer0, .1 
eer ee ee men = - ~allew vincess ai egainedd .! 
ee ee ee et ee meee mem eistone) of 
_» + ~baod thedg bus ellew ai avaineyo to sasgé .f 
ane rencbsin 608 excob bas {fer to saendoio? 3 
eee = + encbate bus @99b Qaieolo to ansed »f 


a 
i 


A. Ancient vaults = ---=---------++-+--- 80 

#. Tunnel vaultse ++2+2+2e22+2222e2 22222 80 

8. Cross vaults ------+----+-------- 82 

ye: Pomeit+ee -- - ee eee ee ee eH HK He 83 

t. Mediaeval vaults -----------+ +--+ rske) 

a. Cross vault- --------+-+-+-+-+----- ga 89. 

8. Eomical vauli- --------+----- - ee = 96 

y. Tunnel vault -------- - - ee ee ere o6 

§. Decorative totives of ritted vavits- - ----- 97 

e. Cloister vaults- --------------e- 104 

¢c. Renaissance vaults -----r--- on x) oa 105 

C. Surperst tearing ceilings- --------- my on 406. 

1. Columns- -------e - ee er er er ee er rrr 106 

a. General considerations -------------°- 4106 
te. Columns in detail- --------+-ce er eo - - 119 
a. Form of capitale =--+-+2s+2+22222224--- = 120 

8. Form of shaft- ----------+--+- +e 129 

ys Easesvof ecclums --<----- +--+ - = 8 130. 

8. Eedestal of column --------------- 131 

2. Pderciose soat——= ----- eee ee ee ee eee 133 

a. Classic and Renaissance treatment of pier- - - - 133 

68. Compoundselassic piers— --.—--------e sn ee +135 
yscCempousd mediaeval piers -« - -- - + =< = sie 13 

2. Entablatures of stone, wood or iron- ------=--= 140. 
a. Treatment + + = + e-e-e-tetete = eee eee me 140 

8. Connected with classic orders- --1-1----- = 4141 

y. Fiers and architraves of girder bridges- - - - - 142 

4, Arches above piers and columns - ---------- 145 

a. Genersleu+is sie cm me we re SSS = 185 

6. ‘Apebedubridges@atiecter + - = t= in 8 oS ee 147 

y. Covered bridges and those built on ------- 149 

5. Euttresses and flying tuttresses ---------- 149 

ae Iheee or four aisled tuildings ----------= 154 
bauFive.or sizteleledibuiidiage - - - = - + + ~ = =e 155 

D. Openings cin(wallese-beccas. et er tr Re Oe ae 156 
t. Qpenings tinguacsonry-walls« = «+ + <= + (2 7 SS 156 

dy (Genetal-onsed-rngtgros Srocresd-ettd + Ss os 15€ 

1. Spans of openings in walls and their btond- - - - 156 

2. Thickness of wall and doors and windows- - - - - 161 


2. Means of closing doors and windows - ----- - 162 


are 


“seers se nceey garsiand »b - 
| ‘* Bwobaie bas 21000 mo [stosqe .4 
=~ +--+ = + +a9¢u08 To exobetW .f 
~2<- + + ewobatw tolled .» 
wine eas 4 = « stnomonsd at erobath .2 
~- = += + = + pHOdnin To esversrdomd wy 
ane e ew wes = = + Otes Golleo~se V2 
wes ee ewe ee ee ew = OBS? TOKEN. L8 
oe eee en en ee w os Ofie wobaete!.> 
-~- ++ <= ~enodats to surokt (srto0ds . 6 
ee2ee ee ** age So onto} [entondh s6- 
~—- === ~ = + 9789 teentber To ar108 LS e 
esien eee ee - + ~eglfoonoo Aiiw 183) .x° 
«ep0ai67 bas shatbitad scideg To meshexeces 
obec ee ee - + ~ = BeORTiO sOTHEI LE 
BOG www ws 2 os She eQbate fedet Gs 
eos ee ee see ~ = = ~ HTSSGSIt woHTtH .é 
“cidgtiqia Sac: awobots ‘toner? .3 
-— = = = = ssyenstsy das 97009".3 f 
eatesviad bac cleanest to efaigel .? 
ee ee Hee ele tee = aie oro0lt 23 
“sew ee ee ee + + etn seses soot .f 
a we hie oe Hee = ~2dREe sHodartqiwicolt .¢ 
-_+ =< +4 = ss esis bas siziad to et0aLt .¢ 
“=— ssote [etottitiea.jorst00lF .> 
eww ee me eee He eH  et00Lt sabe .¢ 
= + + * = =B0tbLied to ese to‘saendess! 2% 
-- + - - ~ *88ftote To fodseisdo bas Tagtsa .f 
- -esoin709 bas assetp0d oniite .wefiet.asts% .S 
meee ewe eee me = BOLTS) TOtSH x 
a a es alge Cae Se ort OSEENOS Babs), 2 
“7s ee Se ee +e wl wee © )* Beotntod: Ly 
- + + 2 = + wis se90teteo to ancktasszedsl 26 
-ersdrou Isfnosii0d ys dbstarsyea Jon estsore .f 
--- + ~ -Gwobsiw yed),foinosisd ,asiaeils? ..b 
- efisbastey bas asinosisd ,selfasiisS .© 
_—-~-—-— - — = 89fm0els7 bs5 arobars si .9 
ee ~ = eriste -¢ 
| ~agzsttses duedsin- bas dtiw eatas2..x 
ee ie + i a S adfuey wo ierteds.. 5 


i, Sas 


-~_- —-— = 


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4, Limiting forms of materials- - - ------ - - 163 
‘be Special on dcors and windews - -------+-+-+- 164 
1. Windows of houses- --------------- 164 
a. Gellar windows --- 27202242222 42 2 2 = = 165 
@. Windows in basement- -+-------- se 
y. ‘Architraves of windows ----------=-= 167 
8. So-called ears --------- eee eee 169 

©. Window cars- ---------- eee ee ee 170 

t. Window sills ---------+------+-%- 174 
n. ‘Abnormal forms of windows- - --------- 177 
&. Abnormal forms of caps vy ve *2*+e22e2 222 2 179 
8. Forms of pediment caps ------------ 183. 
K. Cap with consoles- ----<" <----+-+-+=+<-"=-= 185 
2. Windows of public buildings and palaces- - - - - 186 
2. Church windows ----------------- 1899 
4. Wheel window ------ +--+ 1989 
5. Window tracery -------- eee eee eee 190 
6. Transot windows and skylights- --------- 150 
1, & Doors and gateways- - ------------ 191. 
9.- Fortals ‘of tunnels and culverts- -----~-~—== 193 
BE. Floors -<-- -* << - - se e e- ee he me ea Ke 194 
1. Stone pavements-- ---- - oe om rm oe a 194 
2, Floors’ oft stone! slabs et} — ~- — ~~ ee 195 
$. floors’ of bricks! end: tiles! < + si - — = ~ Se 195 
4, Ploopmofiartificidl stent = ae 156 
5. Wooden floors —- - 4+ = +3 -- +e - ee =e 196 
i. Treatment of wass of building- ------------ 196 
4. Beight ant character of-stories- - - -<- <= == ——3 196 
2. Water tables, string courses and ‘cornices= =< =- <== 198 
ao. Water tables -----+- + ee ree eer rere ise 
6.¥ String woersebl Ht 4) a a 198 
¥i.3 Cornhees: ons “ELF eek ep St ee oe ee 201 
&. Interruptions of corntces= * - +--+ = eS 204 
3, Stories not separated ty horizontal members- - - - - 205 
4.: Galleries, ‘balconies, bay windorws- - ----<-=<--= ‘205. 
a. Galleries, ‘talconies and verandahs ----<---- ‘205 
G. Bay! windows: and balconies 4 es = SS ee 206 

5. Staines 9¢ SMe He ee Re Sr 207 - 

a. Stairs with and without carriages- -------- 207 


6.) stage on vadlte- oars Boe Rie = ee me 204 


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to efsnec efank «6 
---- ajaibasd ,2 
atkets gatiate vie 
-+ + + — =,- egonor 
* satowoy, Io easll .x 
etowot woidevisad0 .9 
~~ + ~gtewot [isa .y 
~ seyenot to stood .é 


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~ = ~ #1091 to am1oF 
-gnis9vo0 Yook 
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etcooa to anottstoosd 
-~ ~eiiso yo tmentded 


v4 
~ - wakdoutdgeo> anosé .9 
-~--- -.~ aottouitecos dois 
“yuigosss ioind oas saote dSexti 
2+ ~ + + = -g0it0071F2 909: hoot 
+S9ffo0iteuo> sposs: Sas: beog, bort' 


-e- este - - ~~ Hoktoprtenes, [stout 
Soon bac saofs ,morr. baer 


~~ = -08l3 to Tasnsaqce171h 
~ - «nantiited. Io eaoktoe2 
-sebeont t2v00' bas eabsos? 
~ + ~ es0ibitud to ebatii 
agetolios isistioors94 of 


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y. Ealustredes of stairs- ------------- 208 
6, Angle newels of stairs ------------- 208 
¢. bandings -----+----- Seay. stm. Som shank eel res tine ae 208 

x, Winding uteirs ----------------- 209 | 

6. lowers - -- --- - - ee eee ee ee ee ee ee 240 

a. Plans of towerse ++ se eee ee memaaia a om 210 
3. Observation towers - --------------- 210 
y. Bell towers--- - --- - eee em me eee 241 
58. Roofs of towers- ---------- ee ee eee 241 
G Roofs- ----- 2 -- eee ee ee er er ee eee ee 2142 
1. Fatter of walls- --------- -- - eee eee 213 
2. Forms of reofs --------- ee ee ee ee ee 213 
3. Roof covering- ------- ee eee ee eee 214 
4. Dorwer windows ----° fr ------- ee ee ee = 215 
5. Chimneys ------ eee ete ere etree i -— 5 
6. Decorations of roofs - --------------- 216 
7, Fediment or gable- - ----------=- 5-546 216 
H. Stone construction --------- - eee ee ee 239 
I. Erick construction ----- ---- ee ee er ee 248 
ke Hixed stone and brick masonry- ---- --- - = 7+ == 219. 
Le Wood construction- ------ e+e" rer et e ee 220 
¥. Hized wood and stone construction- --------=-= 220 
N. Hetady construcbieons=ste. -o~ - oo = ee 221 
CO. Hixed iron, stone and wood construction- - ------ 222 
Fev Arrangement of :flam-i- <!eue -<-- - - ee 1 Se 223 
C. Sections of tuildings- ------- “ak nd lon) eal eho 223 
R. Facades and court facades- - - - - - eee eee ee 223 
S. Kinds of tuildings -------- er - ere rrr 224 
1, @srieditutel ;bathdingse<cces <0¢ sorctces-— - - =e 294 
2. City bousesiee <n - ee e ee  e ee ee 225 
2.°Obarehes <utnes se me eR Ree eR eee ee 298 
4.,\Cotsteriosn 4 SS oS See Se Se = ee 220 
5. Synagogues ----e - em oer eo eo ee eee ee 231 
6. Jewish cemeteries- ---------- rr rr e 231 
oR. Seheolec- tate cates, -beyineons 9 ee 232 
a. Primarye ~* esse eee eee eee ee eee = 237 
8. Higher ------ --e ee ee ee et ene 222 
yatHigbes te ee mm ee ee ie mo 232 
a. Euildings containing large halls- - - - - - - - - 233 


8,:Gontaiving;several+halis= -— -<- - === = = = 234 


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y. Fuseums, libraries, ete.-------+-+-+-+--- 234 

&. Hospitals, asylums, seminaries+ «+ + += «2 2 «= = = 234 

e¢. ‘hilitary ‘tuildings- -----------<==<=s . ~ Ze 

C. Railway stations, markets, exhititions- - - - - - 234 

ry. ‘Hanufactories, foundries, abattoirs - - - - - = = 234 

«x. Eaths, aquariums, observatories + - - - - =~-—==& 234 

8. Houses of parliament -----------+----- 234 
9. Concert halls- ------------------e 23 
10. Dancing halls- -------+-+--+-+-+-+------ 235 
di. Theatres ------- -- ee ee ee ee eee ee 236 
12. Fank and office tuildings- ------------- 236 
13. Town halls ------------------ - ee 239 
14. Ministries, post and telegraph offices - - ---- -- 237 
15. Casinos, houses for clubs and societies- - - - - = =- 238 
16. Libraries, museums, record offices - ------- - = 28 

17. Hospitals, asylums ------+----+-+---+-+-- 239 
18. EFarracks, arsehals -------------- -- - 22 
19. Railway stations, markets, conservatories- - - - - - 240 

20. Manufacories, mints- -------+-+--+------ IAD 
21. Faths, observatories --------+-------- 240 
T. Plens of cities=- ----+--------- _—- 
as.Cénerail-+ +2222 eee eee er ee ee ee ee 241 

b. Streets -- -------- -- ee ee eee eee 246 

c. Sauares- -------- ef -- ee eee eee ee 249 

1. Squares near churches- - ---------+2-5 249 

2. Castle squares ---------------- - 250 

3. Squeres at town halis- - - - - fe eet at 250 

dG. Cardens- ------------- ee ee He eee 251 

0. Wells end fountains- ------------+----- 252 
1. Cistern wells- ---------- eee er er eee 252 
2. Running fountains- ----------- e+ 255 
2, Spring founteins ------------ - 5 - - = - 2] 
UW. Monuments- --------- +s ee eee ee eo 258 
W. City gates, triumphal arches - --------=--- = 262 
%. Fridges, rames, basins for water, harpors- - - - - - - 264 

Y. Lighting of cities ------------------> 2649 
%. Cecorations for festivals- ----------+---°- 268 


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